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Abdominal Pain
What is Abdominal Pain? Abdominal pain or stomach pain refers to discomfort in the space between the chest and pelvis. It is a common complaint which can be caused by trivial to life threatening conditions. Abdominal pain is a common reason for visits to emergency accounting for 7-10% of all Emergency visits but in the majority of the cases it is mild and self-limiting. Causes Abdominal pain can be caused or complicated by a variety of factors. Some most common... -
Abscess
What is an Abscess? An Abscess is a localized collection of pus in a cavity formed by the tissue due to an infection by bacteria, parasite or a foreign substance like splinters, needles, wounds, etc. There can be a single or multiple individual eruptions on skin called Boils, or a cluster of boils called a Carbuncle. Signs and Symptoms Signs and symptoms include pain, redness, swelling and warmth on touch. The redness can involve the surrounding skin as well. Abscess... -
Acidosis
What is Acidosis? Acidosis is a process or processes leading to increased acidity in blood and body tissues. Acidemia is a low blood pH falling below 7.35. There can be Metabolic acidosis or Respiratory Acidosis. Causes Metabolic acidosis can occur due to ketoacidosis, diarrhoea (bicarbonate loss) or renal failure. Respiratory acidosis is due to an increase of carbon dioxide in blood caused by lung problems - chronic bronchitis, emphysema, severe pneumonia, aspiration, head injury, certain drugs and brain tumour. Signs... -
Acne
What is Acne? Acne Vulgaris is an inflammatory skin disorder of the pilosebaceous unit, triggered by Cutibacterium acnes in adolescence, under the influence of normal circulating DHEA. It is a very common disorder affecting mainly teenagers and young adults, although 10-20% of adults may continue to be affected by it. It occurs when dead skin and oil/sebum from the skin clog hair follicles causing pimples, blackheads or whiteheads, and oily skin and may heal with scarring. Mostly found on the... -
Acute Cough
What is Cough? Cough is one of the most common complaints for clinic visits accounting for as many as 30 million visits to the doctor per year. Acute cough is one of the most common presentations in general practice. Cough in general, is an innate protective reflex characterized by sudden expulsion of air from breathing passage. Acute cough lasts not more than 2-3 weeks beginning suddenly. It can be dry or productive (presence of phlegm/sputum). Causes It occurs due to... -
ADHD
What is ADHD? Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a mental health disorder that can cause inattention, or excessive activity and impulsiveness which is not appropriate for age. Both adults and children can have ADHD. More than 60% of children with ADHD continue to have symptoms in adulthood. DSM V: Types of ADHD Predominantly inattentive Predominantly impulsive or hyperactive Combination of the above The onset is usually before age 12 Symptoms present at school, work or home The disturbance causes... -
Alcohol Abuse/Alcoholism
What is Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism? Alcohol is a psychoactive substance with dependence-producing properties. Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism are two terms which are often used interchangeably but they have marked differences. Alcohol abusers are those people who take too much alcohol on occasions leading to risky behaviours. On the other hand, Alcoholism means a person needs alcohol on a daily basis i.e. it has become an addiction. It can cause adverse effects on the digestive and cardiovascular systems and may... -
Allergy
What is Allergy? Allergy is an exaggerated or pathological immunological reaction to substances, situations, or physical states that are without comparable effect on the average individual. It is an altered bodily reactivity, such as hypersensitivity, to an antigen in response to exposure. "What is food to one man may be fierce poison to others" - Lucretius, 1st Century B.C. Causes Genetic, environmental and site-specific factors contribute to the development of allergy. The major environmental factors are alterations in exposure to... -
Alopecia/Hair Loss
What is Alopecia? Alopecia, also known as hair loss or baldness, is an autoimmune condition characterized by loss of hair from part of the head or body, but mostly it is seen affecting the head. It can be in a small patch or may affect the entire body and leads to evident stress and embarrassment. Alopecia areata affects nearly 2% of the population at some point during their lifetime. Alopecia can be subdivided into two main categories: scarring and non-scarring.... -
Amnesia
What is Amnesia? Amnesia is a memory deficit or loss due to a brain disease. Although a mild loss of memory is common with increasing age, an evident degree of memory loss may indicate an underlying condition. There are 2 types of Amnesia - Retrograde and Anterograde Amnesia. Retrograde amnesia is when one loses the memories previously made. It may be the memories of a few years or months before a particular date corresponding to the date of an accident... -
Anaemia
What is Anaemia? According to WHO, anaemia is defined as blood haemoglobin (Hb) concentration < 13 g/dL or haematocrit (Hct) <39% in adult males; Hb <11.5 g/dL or Hct <37% in adult females. It can be caused by various conditions which lead to a decrease in circulating RBCs which can be due to inadequate production or increased RBC destruction. Causes Anaemia can be due to reduced production or increased loss of RBCs and has many causes - Iron deficiency anaemia,... -
Anxiety and Panic Attacks
What are Anxiety and Panic Attacks? Anxiety is an abnormal and overwhelming sense of apprehension and fear often marked by physical signs (such as tension, sweating, and increased pulse rate), by doubt concerning the reality and nature of the threat, and by self-doubt about one's capacity to cope with it. Panic attack is a brief episode of intense fear or dread that is of sudden onset and typically subsides within 30 minutes, usually occurring for no apparent reason but may... -
Arthritis
What is Arthritis? Arthritis is an inflammation of joints due to infectious, metabolic, or constitutional causes. There are more than 100 types of arthritis which have different cause and treatment measures. Joint pain, stiffness and swelling are the most common symptoms. There may be reduction in the range of motion, redness on the joint, with symptoms worse in the morning in many cases. Some of the most common types of arthritis are: Osteoarthritis and Rheumatoid Arthritis. Inflammatory arthritis can be... -
Asthma
What is Asthma? Asthma is a syndrome characterized by recurrent episodes of breathing difficulty, cough (often at night), sputum and wheeze caused by reversible airway obstruction. Majority of the cases have a childhood-onset disease and are associated with other features of atopy, such as eczema and hayfever. Asthmatics suffer from an attack with periods of normal function. It is estimated that more than 339 million people suffer from asthma globally. Causes There is no single cause identified for Asthma, but... -
Bladder Infection/Cystitis
What is Cystitis? Cystitis is the inflammation of the urinary bladder which is a lower urinary tract infection. It affects women more often than men. 81% of the total UTIs in the world occur in women. Mild cases are self-limiting but it can become recurrent in many cases. It may be broadly categorized as either uncomplicated or complicated. Uncomplicated cystitis refers to lower urinary tract infection (UTI) in either men or non-pregnant women who are otherwise healthy. Complicated cystitis is... -
Blurring of Vision
What is Blurred Vision? Blurring of vision is the lack of sharpness of vision resulting in difficulty to see fine details. It can affect one eye or both eyes depending on the cause. Causes Blurring of vision can be due to many conditions, some common ones are: Refractive errors - Myopia, Hypermetropia or astigmatism Corneal abrasion - Loss of the surface epithelial layer of the eye's cornea. They are extremely painful due to nerve exposure and can cause tearing, squinting... -
Bronchitis
What is Bronchitis? Bronchitis is the acute or chronic inflammation of the bronchial tubes which carry air to the lungs. Acute bronchitis lasts for a few weeks and Chronic bronchitis is recurrent or it comes back again and again. Causes About 5% of adults suffer from an episode of acute bronchitis each year. It is caused by infection of the large airways commonly due to viruses and is usually self-limiting. It can also be caused by allergens, bacteria and irritants,... -
Bruxism
What is Bruxism? Bruxism can be defined as the involuntary, unconscious, and excessive grinding of teeth. During bruxism, there is forceful contact between the biting surfaces of maxillary and mandibular teeth. It may occur while awake, and it is then called wakeful or diurnal bruxism, and also during sleep, which is known as nocturnal bruxism. The main cause of bruxism is unidentified but is known to involve multiple factors. Bruxism can be subclassified into primary and secondary, whereas primary bruxism... -
Bunion
What is a Bunion? Hallux valgus (HV), also known as a bunion, is one of the most common forefoot deformities, manifesting with the proximal phalanx deviating laterally and the first metatarsal head deviating medially. It occurs due to the adduction of the first metatarsus, called metatarsus primus varus and is more commonly seen in women and those who wear tight shoes or heels. Causes The exact etiology is not fully understood, but there are many proposed theories. HV deformity is... -
Burn Care
What is a Burn? A burn is an injury to the skin or other organic tissue caused by heat or due to radiation, radioactivity, electricity, friction or contact with chemicals. Almost 86% of burns are caused by thermal injury, while about 4% are electrical and 3% are chemical. Flame and scald burns are the leading cause of burns in children and adults. Thermal (heat) burns occur when some or all of the cells in the skin or other tissues are... -
Bursitis
What is Bursitis? Bursitis is a swelling or inflammation of a bursa, which is a synovium-lined, sac-like structure found all over the body near bony prominences and between bones, muscles, tendons, and ligaments. Bursae facilitates movement in the musculoskeletal system, by creating a cushion between tissues that move against one another. Due to its inflammation, the bursa enlarges with fluid, and any movement against or direct pressure upon the bursa will cause pain. There are many causes of bursitis, including... -
Cellulitis
What is Cellulitis? Cellulitis is a common bacterial skin infection responsible for 551?000 DALYs and 42.9 million incident cases in 2019 globally. It presents as a poorly demarcated, warm, erythematous area with associated oedema and tenderness. It is an acute bacterial infection causing inflammation of the deep dermis and surrounding subcutaneous tissue. Causes Cellulitis most commonly results from infection with group A beta-hemolytic streptococcus (i.e., Streptococcus pyogenes). Risk factors for cellulitis include any condition that could cause a breakdown in... -
Chlamydia
What is Chlamydia? Chlamydia is a sexually transmitted infectious disease caused by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis. It is the most common sexually transmitted infection affecting globally. It causes an ocular infection called "trachoma," which is the leading infectious cause of blindness worldwide. In females, the cervix is most commonly infected and the infection can manifest as cervicitis, urethritis, pelvic inflammatory disease, perihepatitis, or proctitis. Chlamydial infections in women, if untreated, increase the risk of infertility and ectopic pregnancy. Infants born... -
Chronic Back Pain
What is Back Pain? Back pain is one of the most common complaints for which people visit the doctor or miss work due to disability. Lower back pain or Lumbago is not a disease but a symptom of several types of disorders. It can present as a dull aching in back, a stabbing or shooting pain radiating down the leg to foot, an inability to stand straight or as a decreased range of movement and restricted flexion of back. Types... -
Chronic Cough
What is Cough? Cough is one of the most common complaints for clinic visits accounting for as many as 30 million visits to the doctor per year. Cough in general, is an innate protective reflex characterized by sudden expulsion of air from breathing passage. A chronic cough is when a cough lasts longer than 8 weeks in adults or 4 weeks in children. Causes There are various conditions that can result in a chronic cough. Some of the most important... -
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
What is Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease? Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a chronic inflammatory lung disease that causes obstructed airflow from the lungs. It is associated with structural lung changes due to chronic inflammation from long-term exposure to irritating gases or particulate matter, most often from cigarette smoke. Chronic inflammation causes airway narrowing and decreased lung recoil. Symptoms include breathing difficulty, cough, mucus (sputum) production and wheezing. COPD affects mainly smokers and those greater than age 40. Prevalence increases... -
Common Cold (Viral Rhinitis)
What is Viral Rhinitis Rhinitis refers to the inflammation of the nasal mucosal linings which is usually associated with environmental allergies or respiratory viral infections. Acute Viral Rhinitis is the most common form of any infectious disease of the human body. Common complaints and physical findings related to AVR are similar to those seen with other types of rhinitis such as allergic, hormonal, senile, or drug induced. Causes Human rhinoviruses (HRV) are responsible for up to half of the cases... -
Common Wart
What is a Wart? Warts are benign lesions that occur in the mucosa and skin caused by the human papillomavirus (HPV). HPV may occur at any site and are easily transmitted by direct or indirect contact, especially if there is the disruption of the normal epithelial barrier. Common warts are associated with HPV types 2, 4 (most common), followed by types 1, 3, 27, 29, and 57. They are common worldwide and affect approximately 10% of the population. In school-aged... -
Constipation
What is Constipation? Constipation is generally described as having fewer than three bowel movements a week. Functional constipation is a prevalent condition in childhood affecting about 29.6% of the population worldwide. Chronic idiopathic constipation is characterized by lack of periodicity in defecating, difficulty or pain during defecation without an identifiable organic cause, such as physiological, anatomical, radiological, or histological. Rome IV criteria establish functional constipation when 2 or more of the following are present for at least one month for... -
Corns
What are corns? Corns are thick, hardened layers of skin that develop when your skin tries to protect itself against friction and pressure. They most often develop on the feet and toes or hands and fingers. Corns tend to be small and round and can be unsightly for some people. Most people seek prompt removal of corns because of cosmetic reasons. Types of corns Hard corns: These are small, hard dense areas of skin usually within a larger area of... -
Crohn’s Disease
What is Crohn's Disease? Crohn disease (CD) is a type of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The inflammation in this disease affects the entire thickness of the bowel wall from the mucosa to the serosa and it runs a relapsing and remitting course. It is initially mild to moderate in severity but with multiple relapses, CD can progress to severe penetrating (fistulization) and/or stricturing disease. Crohn's disease is characterized by transmural inflammation which includes the entire GI tract from mouth to... -
Croup
What is Croup? The spectrum of Croup comprises 3 conditions - Laryngotracheitis, laryngotracheobronchitis, and laryngotracheobronchopneumonitis. Croup is a common respiratory illness affecting the trachea, larynx, and bronchi that can lead to inspiratory stridor and barking cough. It is mostly caused by the parainfluenza virus, but a bacterial infection can also cause it. There is swelling of the larynx, trachea, and large bronchi due to infiltration of white blood cells, which results in partial airway obstruction. This obstruction, when significant, results... -
Degenerative Disc Disease
What is Degenerative Disc Disease? Intervertebral discs are pads of fibrocartilage-based structures present between each vertebral body of the spine that provide support, flexibility, and share some load as well. These are composed of two layers: nucleus pulposus on the inside of the disc and a surrounding firm structure known as the annulus fibrosus. A disruption of the normal architecture of these discs can lead to a disc herniation or a protrusion of the inner nucleus pulposus, which can apply... -
Dementia
What is Dementia? According to WHO, Dementia is a syndrome, usually of a chronic or progressive nature, in which there is deterioration in cognitive function (i.e. the ability to process thought) beyond what might be expected from normal ageing. It affects memory, thinking, orientation, comprehension, calculation, learning capacity, language, and judgement. Consciousness remains unaffected. The impairment in cognitive function is accompanied, and at times preceded, by deterioration in emotional control, social behaviour, or motivation. Dementia is one of the major... -
Dental Abscess
What is Dental abscess? Dental abscesses or periapical infections typically arise secondary to dental caries, trauma, or failed dental root canal treatment. The different types of dental abscesses depend on location. The three most common types are: Periapical abscess is an abscess at the tip of a tooth's root. Periodontal abscess is an abscess on the gum next to the root of a tooth. It might also spread to the surrounding tissue and bone. Gingival abscess is an abscess on... -
Depression
What is Depression? Depression is a mood disorder that causes a persistent feeling of sadness and loss of interest. The American Psychiatric Associationעs Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) classifies the depressive disorders into: Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder Major depressive disorder Persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia) Premenstrual dysphoric disorder Depressive disorder due to another medical condition Causes The etiology of major depressive disorder is multifactorial with both genetic and environmental factors playing a role. Depression results from a... -
Dermal Ulcer
What is Dermal Ulcer? Dermal ulcer or skin ulcer is an open sore resulting from an injury, poor circulation or pressure. It can develop on any part of the body but are most common on lower extremities, mouth or lips, hips and gluteal region. Types of Ulcer Venous skin ulcers: Shallow, open sores that develop in the skin of the lower extremities due to poor blood circulation. Arterial (ischemic) skin ulcers: They can form on the outside of the ankle,... -
Dermatitis
What is Dermatitis? Dermatitis refers to the inflammation of skin and comprises a range of ailments. In general, dermatitis presents with dry, swollen and red skin, causes and features of which, vary according to the type of dermatitis. The common symptoms to all types of dermatitis are - rashes, dry cracked skin, itching, blisters, stinging or burning pain, redness and swelling. Types of Dermatitis There are many types of dermatitis known, the most common ones are: Atopic Dermatitis or Eczema:... -
Diabetes mellitus
What is Diabetes Mellitus? Diabetes Mellitus (DM) is a metabolic disease, involving inappropriately elevated blood glucose levels. DM has several categories, including type 1, type 2, maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY), gestational diabetes, neonatal diabetes, and secondary causes due to endocrinopathies, steroid use, etc. Globally, 1 in 11 adults has DM (90% having T2DM). The onset of T1DM gradually increases from birth and peaks at ages 4 to 6 years and then again from 10 to 14 years. Types... -
Diarrhoea
What is Diarrhoea? Diarrhoea is defined as three or more loose or watery stools in a day. It can be acute or chronic and infectious or noninfectious based on the duration and type of symptoms. Acute diarrhoea is defined as an episode lasting less than 2 weeks most commonly caused by a viral infection. Chronic diarrhoea is defined as a duration lasting longer than 4 weeks and is non-infectious. Common causes include malabsorption, inflammatory bowel disease, and medication side effects.... -
Earache / Otitis
What is Earache or Otalgia? Otalgia or ear pain can be divided into: primary and secondary otalgia. Primary otalgia is ear pain that occurs from an underlying pathology in the inner, middle, or external ear. Secondary or referred otalgia is ear pain that occurs from pathology located outside the ear. Causes Primary otalgia most commonly occurs due to infectious, mechanical, neoplastic, and inflammatory causes. Acute otitis media (AOM) is the most common cause of primary otalgia in children. In adults,... -
Eating Disorders
What are Eating Disorders? Eating disorders are defined as the disruption in the eating behavior with excessive concern about body weight that impairs physical health or psychosocial functioning. DSM-5 mentions eight categories in feeding and eating disorders: Anorexia nervosa Bulimia nervosa Binge eating disorder Avoidant or restrictive food intake disorder Pica Rumination Other specified feeding and eating disorders: Purging disorder Night eating syndrome Atypical anorexia nervosa Subthreshold bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder Orthorexia Unspecified feeding and eating disorders Causes... -
Edema / Oedema
What is Oedema? Oedema is an abnormal infiltration and excess accumulation of serous fluid in connective tissue or in a serous cavity. Edema can affect any part of the body and ranges from local swelling to anasarca, depending on the underlying pathology. Causes Causes of the peripheral oedema can be divided depending on the underlying mechanism: Increased Capillary Hydrostatic Pressure Regional venous hypertension (often unilateral): Deep vein thrombosis, Compartment syndrome, Chronic venous insufficiency. Systemic venous hypertension (often bilateral): Heart failure,... -
Elbow Sprain
What is Elbow Sprain? Elbow sprain is an injury to the soft tissues of the elbow caused due to stretching or tearing (partial or full) of the ligaments which support the elbow joint. Pulled or torn ligaments can be extremely painful and limit the ability to move the elbow. Causes The various causes of an elbow sprain are: Involuntary twisting of the arm during sports. Traumatic injury to the elbow due to accidents or a fall. Overstretching of the elbow... -
Encopresis
What is Encopresis? Encopresis or fecal incontinence is defined as involuntary passing of stool into inappropriate places in children older than four years of age. It causes great psychological distress on children and their families. In the DSM-5, encopresis criteria consists of the repeated passage of stool into inappropriate places, and it can be either voluntarily or involuntarily. These events should occur for at least three months. Encopresis in children can be subclassified into primary, those children who have never... -
Endometriosis
What is Endometriosis? Endometriosis is a chronic gynecological disorder characterized by the presence and growth of functioning endometrial tissue in places other than the uterus that often results in severe pain and infertility. The endometriosis lesions can be seen in various locations, with the most common location bein the ovaries followed by the posterior broad ligament, the anterior cul-de-sac, the posterior cul-de-sac, and the uterosacral ligament. It can also affect the intestinal tract and the urinary system like the ureter,... -
Epilepsy
What is Epilepsy? Epilepsy is a chronic noncommunicable disease of the brain affecting around 50 million people worldwide, characterized by recurrent seizures. Seizures are brief episodes of involuntary movement that may involve a part of the body (partial) or the entire body (generalized) and are sometimes accompanied by loss of consciousness and control of bowel or bladder function. They can vary from the briefest lapses of attention or muscle jerks to severe and prolonged convulsions. Epilepsy is defined as having... -
Esophagitis
What is Esophagitis? Esophagitis is the inflammation or injury to the esophageal mucosa characterised by a retrosternal chest pain, heartburn, dysphagia or odynophagia. One of the most common causes is gastroesophageal reflux, which can lead to erosive esophagitis. Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a chronic gastrointestinal disorder characterized by regurgitation of gastric contents into the oesophagus and it manifests with symptoms of heartburn and regurgitation. It is caused by multiple mechanisms leading to the disruption of the oesophagogastric junction barrier... -
Farsightedness (Hyperopia)
What is Farsightedness or Hyperopia? Hyperopia refers to the refractive condition of the eye where parallel light rays coming from the infinity are focussed behind the neurosensory retina (after refraction through the ocular media ) when accommodation is at rest. It is the most common refractive error in children. If left untreated after diagnosis, sequelae such as amblyopia and tropia can develop. Causes Hyperopia can be classified on the basis of cause: Axial hyperopia (simple hyperopia): Occurs due to anterior-posterior... -
Fatigue
What is Fatigue? Fatigue is the lack of energy and motivation (both physical and mental). It can be a normal response to physical and mental activity. In most cases it is quickly relieved, usually in hours to about a day, depending on the intensity of the activity, by reducing the activity. Fatigue is a very common complaint and is a symptom and not a disease. It usually has a gradual onset and the person is unaware of how much energy... -
Female Pattern Baldness
What is Female Pattern Baldness? Female Pattern Baldness or androgenetic alopecia is a genetic disorder occurring due to excessive response to androgens which affects up to 50% of males and females. It is characterized by progressive loss of terminal hair of the scalp after puberty, in a characteristic distribution in both males and females. In males, hair loss is most prominent in the vertex and frontotemporal regions, while in women the frontal hairline is typically spared with diffuse apical hair... -
Fever
What is Fever? Pyrexia or fever is an abnormal elevation of body temperature. It is said to be present when: Rectal temperature is at or over 37.5 - 38.3ºC (99.5 - 100.9ºF) Oral Temperature is at or over 37.2ºC (99.0 ºF) in the morning or over 37.7 ºC (99.9 ºF) in the afternoon. Axillary temperature is at or over 37.2 ºC (99.0ºF) Causes Fever can be caused by various viruses, bacteria, parasites and might be seen in certain conditions. Pyrexia... -
Fibroids
What are Fibroids? Uterine fibroids or leiomyomata are the most common benign tumors affecting women originating from uterine smooth muscle cells (myometrium) the growth of which is dependent on the levels of circulating oestrogen. Fibroids can present as an asymptomatic incidental finding on imaging, or symptomatically. Common symptoms include abnormal uterine bleeding, pelvic pain, disruption of surrounding pelvic structures(bowel and bladder), and back pain. Uterine fibroids are seen in three significant locations: subserosal (outside the uterus), intramural (inside the myometrium),... -
Fibromyalgia
What is Fibromyalgia? Fibromyalgia (FM) is characterized by chronic widespread musculoskeletal pain accompanied by fatigue, cognitive disturbance, psychiatric and multiple somatic symptoms. Fibromyalgia has an unknown etiology and uncertain pathophysiology. Causes Fibromyalgia has an unknown etiology. It is triggered or aggravated by multiple physical and/or emotional stressors which include infections as well as emotional and physical trauma. There are pain and sensory processing alterations in the central nervous system. Known risk factors include: Most people are diagnosed during middle age... -
Flu (Influenza)
What is Influenza? Influenza is a communicable viral disease that affects the upper and lower respiratory tract and is caused by influenza viruses. A wide spectrum of influenza viruses causes it, among them there are 4 types of seasonal influenza viruses, types A, B, C and D. Influenza A viruses: Subtype A(H1N1) and A(H3N2) influenza viruses are the subtypes currently found affecting humans. Only this type is known to have caused pandemics. Influenza B viruses: currently circulating influenza type B... -
Food Allergy
What is Food Allergy? Food allergy is an abnormal response to a food caused by immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibody. It affects about 4% to 6% of children and 4% of adults, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Allergic reactions secondary to food ingestion are responsible for a variety of symptoms involving the skin, gastrointestinal system, and respiratory system. Risk Factors Risk factors for severe food allergies or anaphylaxis include: Asthma Prior episodes of anaphylaxis Delay in the... -
Frostbite
What is Frostbite? Frostbite, or freezing cold injury (FCI) is defined as tissue damage occurring as a result of cold exposure, occurring at temperatures below 0 degrees C. There is high risk for ischemic tissue injury and necrosis. Patients that survive cold tissue injury are prone to secondary infection and dehydration from loss of the skin barrier. It occurs when the body is exposed to intense cold, resulting in vasoconstriction. The resulting decrease in blood flow leads to ice crystal... -
Frozen Shoulder
What is a Frozen Shoulder? Adhesive capsulitis (AC) or frozen shoulder is an insidious inflammatory condition of the shoulder that causes fibrosis of the joint capsule and persists for more than 3 months. It is accompanied by gradually progressive stiffness and significant restriction of range of motion, especially external rotation. Females are 4 times more often affected than men, while the non-dominant shoulder is more prone to be affected. Causes The cause of the frozen shoulder is not yet fully... -
Furuncle
What is a Furuncle? A furuncle is a type of abscess that forms around a hair follicle and contains pus occurring due to an infection by bacteria, parasite or a foreign substance like splinters, needles, wounds, etc. It starts as a red tender lump which rapidly fills with pus, and as it grows it may burst. It mainly affects the thighs, armpits, buttocks, face, and neck, occurring in places prone to hair, sweat, and friction, and tends to start in... -
Gastric Ulcer
What is Gastric Ulcer? Gastric ulcers are a break in the mucosal barrier of the stomach lining that penetrates through the muscularis mucosa and are greater than 5 mm in diameter. There are natural factors such as prostaglandins, mucus growth factors, and adequate blood flow, which protect the stomach mucosa from the harmful acidic environment of gastric lumen. When alterations occur to these defenses, it can lead to changes in the gastric mucosa which causes erosion and ulceration. This barrier... -
Gastroenteritis
What is Gastroenteritis? Gastroenteritis is inflammation of the lining of the stomach and small and large intestines characterized by anorexia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, and abdominal discomfort. Most cases are infectious, but it may also occur after ingestion of drugs and chemical toxins (eg, metals, plant substances). Gastritis is an inflammation of the protective lining of the stomach only. It is usually caused by certain bacteria or the regular use of anti-inflammatory painkillers. There are two kinds of gastritis: acute and... -
Gingivitis
What is Gingivitis? Gingivitis is an inflammatory condition of the soft-tissue area of the gingival epithelium or the gums and connective tissue most commonly due to a bacterial infection. It is considered to be the commonest periodontal disease. It is characterized by swelling and redness in the affected area, along with bleeding upon probing. Gingivitis undergoes four different stages before progressing to periodontitis if not treated: Initial lesion - characterized by the response of resident leukocytes and endothelial cells to... -
Gonorrhoea
What is Gonorrhoea? Neisseria gonorrhoeae is a sexually transmitted disease that causes worldwide morbidity and disproportionately impacts young adult populations. It is the second most common cause of bacterial sexually transmitted infections worldwide. The WHO estimates that 106 million new gonorrhea cases are documented among adults annually worldwide and many more infections go unreported. Causes The pathogen N. gonorrhoeae infects only humans and most commonly manifests as urethritis in men and cervicitis in women. To survive, these bacteria must infect... -
Gouty Arthritis
What is Gout? Gout is a metabolic disease marked by a painful inflammation of the joints, deposits of urates in and around the joints, and usually an excessive amount of uric acid in the blood. It is characterized by monosodium urate (MSU) monohydrate crystals deposition in the tissues. The prevalence of gout is higher among individuals with chronic diseases such as hypertension, chronic kidney disease, diabetes, obesity, congestive heart failure, and myocardial infarction. Risk Factors Hyperuricemia is the most important... -
Hay Fever
What is Hay Fever? Hay Fever or Allergic rhinitis (AR) is an atopic disease presenting with symptoms of sneezing, nasal congestion, clear rhinorrhoea, and nasal pruritus. It is an IgE-mediated immune response that is against inhaled antigens in the immediate phase, with a subsequent leukotriene-mediated late phase. It presents with the classical symptoms of nasal congestion, rhinorrhoea, sneezing, post nasal drip and nasal pruritus. It can be classified as either seasonal (intermittent) or perennial (chronic), with approximately 20% of the... -
Hemorrhoids
What are Haemorrhoids? The term haemorrhoids, also known as piles, and hemorrhoidal disease refer to the state of symptoms attributed to the vascular cushions present in the anal canal. These are naturally occurring vascular issues within the submucosa in the anal canal. They help in aiding stool continence by providing bulk to the anal canal. Haemorrhoids typically occur at three locations: left lateral, right anterior, right posterior positions. External haemorrhoids are covered by squamous epithelium and innervated by cutaneous nerves... -
Hepatitis
What is Hepatitis? Hepatitis is defined as inflammation of the liver that can result from a variety of causes such as heavy alcohol use, autoimmune, drugs, or toxins. The most frequent cause of hepatitis is due to viral infection and is referred to as viral hepatitis. If inflammation of the liver lasts for less than 6 months, then it is termed as acute hepatitis and if it lasts longer than 6 months it is termed as chronic hepatitis. Hepatitis results... -
Herpes Simplex
What is Herpes Simplex? Herpes simplex viruses are ubiquitous, host-adapted pathogens that cause a wide variety of disease conditions. The two types of conditions caused by herpes simplex are Herpes simplex type 1 (HSV-1) and Herpes simplex type 2 (HSV-2). While HSV-1 produces orofacial manifestations, HSV-2 is associated with the genital disease. HSV is well distributed worldwide, with over 23 million new cases per year. The infection is more common in women than men. Causes HSV is transmitted via close... -
Hypercholesterolemia
What is Hypercholesterolemia? Hypercholesterolemia or High cholesterol can be defined as a LDL-cholesterol greater than 190 mg/dL, greater than 160 mg/dL with one major risk factor, or greater than 130 mg/dL with two cardiovascular risk factors. The risk factors include- Age: male 45 years or older, female 55 years or older A positive family history of premature atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (younger than 55 years in a male and younger than 65yrs in a female) Hypertension Diabetes Smoking Low HDL-cholesterol levels... -
Hypertension
What is Hypertension? Hypertension is a condition in which the systolic blood pressure (SBP) of a person is ≥140 mm Hg and/or the diastolic blood pressure (DBP) is≥90 mm Hg following repeated examination. It is a serious medical condition that significantly increases the risk of heart, brain, kidney and other diseases. There are various mechanisms involved in hypertension which includes increased salt absorption resulting in volume expansion, an impaired response of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), increased activation of the sympathetic... -
Hypotension
What is Hypotension? Hypotension is classified based on the biometric parameters of the blood pressure measurement. It may be absolute with changes in systolic blood pressure to less than 90 mm Hg or mean arterial pressure of less than 65 mm Hg. It is a relatively benign condition. Hypotension may be relative to a decrease in diastolic pressure to less than 40 mm Hg. It may be orthostatic with a decrease in systolic pressure or 20 mm Hg or greater... -
Impotence (Erectile Dysfunction)
What is Impotence? Erectile dysfunction (ED), formerly termed impotence, is defined as "the inability to attain and/or maintain penile erection sufficient for satisfactory sexual performance" or "the consistent or recurrent inability to attain and/or maintain penile erection sufficient for sexual satisfaction". While there is no specific time period that is part of this definition, it is suggested that the condition needs to persist for six months. Some of the cases in younger men may be due to psychological causes but... -
Indigestion
What is Indigestion? Dyspepsia or indigestion (also called functional dyspepsia) is defined by the Rome II Committee on functional gastrointestinal disorders as chronic or recurrent pain or discomfort centered in the upper abdomen. Functional dyspepsia is one of the most common functional gastrointestinal disorders and affects more than 20% of the population. It is defined by the presence of one or more of the following symptoms- Epigastric pain or burning Early satiety Postprandial fullness in the absence of structural disease... -
Ingrown Toenail
What is Ingrown toenail? Ingrown toenail, also known as onychocryptosis or unguius incarnatus, occurs when the nail plate grows into the periungual skin and causes inflammation and infection. The hallux or the big toe nails are the most frequent location. One of the hypothesized theories for ingrown toenail is the excess of skin surrounding the nail. This leads to the bulging of the wide lateral tissue up around the nail leading to pressure and necrosis. Also, ingrown toenails occur when... -
Insect Bite
What is Insect Bite? Insects are arthropods of the class Insecta. Insects have an adult stage characterized by a hard exoskeleton, 3 pairs of jointed legs, and a body segmented into head, thorax, and abdomen. Arthropods make up the largest division of the animal kingdom, representing approximately 80% of all known animals. Arachnida has the greatest clinical impact on humans. The exact prevalence and incidence of insect bites is difficult to determine as most of the cases are not reported... -
Insomnia
What is Insomnia? Insomnia is defined as repeated difficulty with sleep initiation, maintenance, consolidation, or quality that occurs despite adequate time and opportunity for sleep and that results in some form of daytime impairment. According to the third edition of the International Classification of Sleep Disorder, insomnia is classified as: Chronic Insomnia Disorder: The sleep disturbances occur at least three times a week and have been present for the last 3 months. Short-Term Insomnia Disorder: The sleep disturbances have been... -
Iron Deficiency
What is Iron deficiency? Iron deficiency or sideropenia is a state where total body iron stores are inadequate to support normal metabolic functions. Iron is essential for multiple biological functions of the body and is required for the synthesis of haemoglobin, myoglobin, cell regulation and DNA synthesis. Iron deficiency occurs in three stages- Pre-latent stage: iron stores are low or absent, but serum iron concentration is normal. Latent stage: transferrin saturation and serum iron become reduced in addition to low... -
Irritable Bowel Syndrome
What is Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)? Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a functional gastrointestinal (GI) disorder characterized by abdominal pain and altered bowel habit in the absence of a specific and unique organic pathology usually. The pathogenesis is broad and include abnormalities involving motility, visceral sensation, brain-gut interaction, and psychosocial distress. Environmental contributors to IBS include early life stressors, food intolerance, antibiotics, and enteric infections. Many patients do not seek medical help for IBS, though 12% to 15% is the... -
Jammed Finger
What is a Jammed finger? Jammed finger is caused by a type of blunt impact in which the tip of the finger is pushed back toward the hand. The momentum from the impact's force can stretch or even tear the ligaments in the finger which can cause sprain. If the impact force is hard enough, it can also cause tendon damage or a bone fracture. Causes Jammed finger is caused by smashing the finger against something and the force pushes... -
Jaundice
What is Jaundice? Jaundice, also known as hyperbilirubinemia, is a yellow discoloration of the body tissue resulting from the accumulation of an excess of bilirubin. The normal serum levels of bilirubin are less than 1mg/dl, however, jaundice becomes clinically evident scleral icterus (peripheral yellowing of the eye sclera) when the levels reach more than 3 mg/dl. The metabolism of bilirubin can be divided into prehepatic, hepatic and post- hepatic phases. Dysfunction in prehepatic phase results in elevated serum levels of... -
Jet Lag Disorder
What is a Jet lag disorder? Jet lag occurs when air travel allows a person to move time zones in a short amount of time, thus causing the intrinsic circadian rhythm to be in desynchrony with external light cues. It usually includes when the person is travelling through at least two time zones. Eastward travel is more difficult to adjust to than westward travel. Currently, there are no studies to actually determine the gender preponderance to jet lag disorders. All... -
Jock Itch
What is Jock Itch? Jock itch also called as Tinea cruris, is an infection involving the genital, pubic, perineal, and perianal skin caused by pathogenic fungi known as dermatophytes. Intertriginous areas are suitable environments for fungus with sweating, maceration, and alkaline pH being responsible for the groin's predisposition to the infection. The dermatophytes affect the keratinised structures such as hair and the epidermis stratum corneum causing the array of symptoms. Though the basic pathophysiology remains unknown, these organisms use proteinases... -
Joint Infection
What is Joint infection (Septic arthritis)? Septic arthritis is joint inflammation secondary to an infectious aetiology, usually bacterial, but occasionally fungal, mycobacterial, viral, or other uncommon pathogens. The joint involvement is usually monoarticular affecting one large joint such as the hip or knee, however polyarticular presentation may also be seen. Septic arthritis may also result from direct injury, puncture wounds, and intra-articular injections. Also, the highly vascularized joint synovium lacks a limiting basement membrane so is prone to infection via... -
Joint Pain (Arthritis)
What is Joint pain? Joint pain or arthritis is defined as an acute or chronic joint inflammation that often co-exists with pain and structural damage. The disorder must be differentiated from arthralgia which is the localised pain in a joint regardless of its origin. There are many types of arthritis defined clinically, the most common being osteoarthritis or degenerative arthritis which is non-inflammatory arthritis. Osteoarthritis is the most prevalent type of arthritis amongst all. Between 19% and 30% of adults... -
Keratitis
What is Keratitis? Keratitis is a condition characterised by the inflammation of the cornea. The condition is marked by the presence of a clear dome on the front surface of the eye, which becomes inflamed. Nearly 1 million people are diagnosed with keratitis annually. Risk Factors Several risk factors are considered to be the cause of keratitis which may include- Contact lens wearers Known history of cold sores, chicken pox or shingles Frequent eye drops users Dry eyes Corneal injury... -
Kidney Cyst/ Renal Cyst
What is a Kidney Cyst? Renal cysts or kidney cysts are sacs of fluid that form in the kidneys. They are usually characterized as "simple" cysts, meaning they have a thin wall and contain water-like fluid. Since they are asymptomatic, renal cysts are most often found during imaging tests performed for other reasons. Simple renal cysts are extremely common, and the incidence increases with age. Approximately 25% of people who are 40 years or older and approximately 50% of people... -
Kidney Stones / Renal Stones
What are Kidney Stones? Renal calculi are a common cause of blood in the urine (haematuria) and pain in the abdomen, flank, or groin. They occur in one in 11 people at some time in their lifetimes with males being affected more than females. For patients who have a history of a previous urinary stone, recurrence rates approach 50% at ten years. The four major types of renal calculi are as follows- Calcium stones due to hyperparathyroidism, hyperoxaluria, hypomagnesemia and... -
Knee Pain
What is Knee Pain? Knee pain is a common complaint among adults which is commonly associated with general wear and tear from daily activities like walking, bending, standing and lifting. Athletes who run or play sports that involve jumping or quick pivoting are also more likely to experience knee pain. The causes of knee pain may be multiple and it can affect the quality of life significantly. Causes of knee pain The common causes of knee pain are- Sprained or... -
Laceration
What is Laceration? Lacerations are a pattern of injury in which skin and the underlying tissues are cut or torn. Unlike an abrasion, the skin isn't missing. A cut is typically thought of as a wound caused by a sharp object, like a shard of glass. Usually, lacerations are caused by blunt trauma. Signs and symptoms A cut is typically one of the earliest and the easiest signs to diagnose the laceration, though it may be obscured by the blood... -
Laryngitis
What is Laryngitis? Laryngitis refers to inflammation of the larynx and it can have an acute and chronic presentation. Whereas acute laryngitis typically persists for a period of 3-7 days, chronic laryngitis manifests for over three weeks. Laryngitis can affect patients of any age, though it is more common in the adult population, usually affecting individuals aged 18 to 40 years. Risk factors The aetiology of laryngitis (acute) can be classified as either infectious or non-infectious. The infectious form is... -
Leg Pain
What is Leg Pain? Pain in any part of the leg is considered to be a common symptom of trauma or a disease which requires a thorough investigation. Leg pain can be sharp, dull, numb, tingling, burning, radiating or aching depending upon the cause of origin. With respect to the duration, it can also be sudden (acute) or persistent (chronic). The most common cause of acute leg pain may be an injury sustained during sports. On the other hand, persistent... -
Lice
What is Lice? Lice are parasitic insects that can be found on the head and body of human beings, including the pubic area. Human lice survive by feeding on human blood. The three types of lice that live on humans are: Pediculus humanus capitis (head louse) Pediculus humanus corporis (body louse, clothes louse) Pthirus pubis (crab louse, pubic louse) Socioeconomic status seems to be an indicator of the magnitude of lice infestation, but other factors like hygienic status and overcrowding... -
Lightheadedness
What is lightheadedness? Feeling woozy, lightheaded, or a little faint is a common symptom in adults. Light-headedness is a feeling of faintness, dizziness, or being close to passing out. However, light-headedness is not the same as dizziness. Dizziness is accompanied by vertigo, which affects balance and makes a person feel as though they or their surroundings are spinning. Dizziness is a common symptom thatעs not usually a sign of anything serious, but should be investigated by the physician. Common causes... -
Lipoma
What is Lipoma? Lipomas are defined as a common subcutaneous growth composed of adipose (fat) cells, often encapsulated by a thin layer of fibrous tissue. Lipomas are the most frequent tumours which are encountered by the clinicians. However, lipomas must be differentiated from liposarcoma with the help of biopsy as liposarcomas pose a greater risk to the patient. The prevalence of lipomas has been cited as affecting 1% of the population, while its incidence is 2.1 per 1000 individuals per... -
Major Depressive Disorder
What is Major Depressive Disorder? Major depression, also known as unipolar or major depressive disorder (MDD), is characterized by a persistent feeling of sadness or a lack of interest in outside stimuli. Depression is a serious mood disorder and it presents with a spectrum of symptoms that can affect the quality of life of a person. Approximately, more than 264 million people of all ages suffer from depression worldwide. It is a leading cause of disability worldwide and also a... -
Malaria
What is Malaria? Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by Plasmodium parasites that are transmitted to people through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes called as malaria vectors. Total of 5 species cause malaria in human beings, of which 2- P. falciparum and P. vivax are the severe oneעs in its clinical presentation. In 2019, there were an estimated 229 million cases of malaria worldwide. Risk factors People residing in the countries with malaria transmission are at a greater... -
Mania
What is Mania? Mania is defined as a state of excitement manifested by mental and physical hyperactivity, disorganization of behaviour and elevation of mood. Periods of high or irritable mood are called manic episodes. The patient becomes very active and is full of energy. He/she might sleep far less than normal, and may dream up grand plans that could never be carried out. Patients may also develop psychotic symptoms such as false beliefs (delusions) or false perceptions (hallucinations). Hypomania is... -
Mastitis
What is Mastitis? Inflammation of one or more mammary glands within the breast is called mastitis. Though mastitis commonly affects lactating women (lactational mastitis) but it can occur in non-lactating women and in men also. It occurs in the first few weeks of the postpartum period and affects almost 20% of lactating women in developed countries. Risk factors Sore or cracked nipples can predispose a woman to develop mastitis. Improper nursing technique, prior history of mastitis, using tight-fitting bras and... -
Measles
What is measles? Measles (also called as rubeola) is a preventable highly contagious and an acute febrile viral illness accounting for the most important cause of global mortality and morbidity. It is an acute febrile exanthema characterised by three C's (cough, coryza and conjunctivitis). More than 1,40, 000 people died from measles in 2018- mostly children under the age of 5 years, despite the availability of a safe and effective vaccine. Causes The causative organism of measles is measles virus,... -
Menopausal Disorder/ Syndrome
What are Menopausal disorders? Menopause is the permanent cessation of menses for 12 months resulting from oestrogen deficiency and is not associated with a pathology. The average age of attaining menopause is 51 years. Post-menopause describes the period following the final menses. Causes Menopause is a normal physiological process in aging women in which ovarian follicles start diminishing in number. As a result of this, granulosa cells of the ovary which are responsible for the production of estradiol and inhibin... -
Migraine
What is Migraine? The word migraine is derived from the Greek word hemikrania. Migraine is a genetically influenced complex disorder characterized by episodes of moderate-to-severe headache. These headaches are generally unilateral and associated with nausea with increased sensitivity to external stimuli like light and sound. It is a very common cause of debility and loss of work. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates the worldwide prevalence of current migraine to be 10% and the lifetime prevalence to be 14%. Causes... -
Mumps
What are Mumps? Mumps is an infection caused by a virus and spread human-to-human via direct contact or by airborne droplets. It is sometimes called infectious parotitis. The disease affects the salivary glands primarily. Mumps occurs worldwide, with 500,000 cases reported on average annually. Causes Mumps is caused by the Rubulavirus and a member of the paramyxoviridae family. The majority of the cases are seen in late winter and early spring. Risk factors include immunodeficiency, international travel and lack of... -
Muscle Cramps (Spasm)
What are Muscle cramps? Muscle spasm or cramps is the result of continuous, involuntary, painful, and localized contraction of an entire muscle group, individual single muscle, or select muscle fibres. Muscle spasm is a more encompassing term referring to any involuntary muscle contraction A cramp is never considered as a local effect but it rather involves the whole body both at the somatic and emotional levels. There is practically no relation between gender preponderance and cramps. About 80 percent of... -
Muscle Strain
What is Muscle Strain? It is a contraction-induced injury in which muscle fibres tear due to extensive mechanical stress. This mostly occurs as a result of a powerful eccentric contraction or overstretching of the muscle. Causes A muscle strain can be acute or chronic. Acute muscle strain: An acute muscle strain occurs when muscle tears suddenly. It can be due to trauma or injuries when the muscle is not warmed up properly and has poor flexibility and conditioning. It may... -
NAIL TRAUMA
What is Nail Trauma? A fingernail or a toenail can be injured by a blow to the nail or by any crash injury to the distal phalanx (finger pinched in a drawer/doorway) leading to nail trauma. This kind of trauma results in the collection of blood under the nail and the condition is called subungual hematoma. Causes Some other causes Subungual hematoma are- Use of ill-fitting shoes (can affect toenails) Nail biting Cuticle biting Signs and symptoms Subungual hematoma appears... -
NARCOLEPSY
What is Narcolepsy? Narcolepsy is a disorder of rapid onset of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS), frequent uncontrollable sleep attacks as well as sleep fragmentation. It is also associated with cataplexy (a sudden, brief loss of voluntary muscle tone triggered by strong emotions), hypnagogic hallucinations (imagining realistic objects or events right before falling asleep), and sleep paralysis (feeling of being unable to move, either at the onset of sleep or upon awakening). The two... -
Nasal Polyps
What are Nasal Polyps? Nasal polyps are benign inflammatory and hyperplastic outgrowths of the sinonasal mucosa. It is present most commonly in patients with chronic rhinosinusitis (CRs) in which diffuse nasal polyposis is seen. Hence, the term chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyposis (CRSwNP) is also frequently used when referring to nasal polyps. In the general population the overall prevalence rate of nasal polyposis ranges from 1-4%.It is more common in adults. Risk factors Nasal polyps are of different types with... -
Nausea
What is Nausea? Nausea is the unpleasant sensation that precedes vomiting. Nausea frequently is relieved by vomiting and may be accompanied by increased parasympathetic nervous system activity including diaphoresis, salivation, bradycardia, pallor, and decreased respiratory rate. Causes Two very common causes of nausea are food poisoning and motion sickness. However, nausea is not a disease itself but rather is a sign of some underlying condition such as- Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) Peptic ulcer disease Problems with nerves or muscles in... -
Near-Sightedness (Myopia)
What is Myopia? Near-sightedness or myopia is a medical condition in which people can easily see objects that are closer but encounter a blurring of vision for visualising the far objects. Myopia occurs when the eyeball is too long or when the cornea is too curved. Globally, the prevalence of myopia was estimated at 28.3% in 2010 and is expected to increase to 50% by 2050. Aetiology The exact cause of myopia is unknown. However, certain environmental factors and various... -
Neck Pain
What is Neck Pain? Neck pain is the musculoskeletal disorder that causes pain in the muscles of the neck and its surrounding tissue known as fascia. Hence, it is also termed as Cervical myofascial pain. It is also defined by the Global Burden of Health 2010 Study as "pain in the neck with or without pain referred to one or both upper limbs that lasts for at least one day". The pain could be localised or regional and may be... -
Neuralgia
What is Neuralgia? Neuralgia is an acute paroxysmal pain radiating along the course of one or more nerves usually without demonstrable changes in the nerve structure. The nerve is usually damaged due to factors like aging, diseases and certain infections. Two most common types of neuralgias can be- Post herpetic neuralgia: It occurs as a complication of shingles (viral infection characterized by a painful rash and blisters) and usually occurs along the path of a nerve, hence it is confined... -
Nocturia
What is Nocturia? Nocturia is defined as the need for a patient to get up at night on a regular basis to urinate. A period of sleep must precede and follow the urinary episode to count as a nocturnal void. The condition must be distinguished from Nocturnal enuresis in which the patient is not aware of a full bladder and ends up passing urine involuntarily in the bed. Nocturia becomes more common with age and there is somewhat a higher... -
Nosebleed (Epistaxis)
What is Epistaxis? Epistaxis (nosebleed) is one of the most common ear, nose, and throat (ENT) emergencies that present to the emergency department or the primary care clinic. About 60 percent of people have experienced a nosebleed in their lifetime and it is most common in children ranging from 2 to 10 years old. There are two types of nosebleeds: Anterior nosebleed: The source of bleeding is Kiesselbach's plexus (Little's area) on the anterior nasal septum. This area lies at... -
Obesity
What is Obesity? Obesity is the excessive or abnormal accumulation of fat or adipose tissue in the body that impairs health via its association to the risk of development of diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, and hyperlipidaemia. The issue has grown to epidemic concern and data suggests that over 4 million people are dying each year as a result of being overweight or obese. The body mass index (BMI) is used to define obesity, which is calculated as weight in... -
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
What is Obsessive Compulsive Disorder? Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a common, chronic, and long-lasting disorder in which a person has uncontrollable, reoccurring thoughts (obsessions) and/or behaviours (compulsions) that he or she feels the urge to repeat over and over. OCD has the ability to impair everyday functioning. The worldwide prevalence of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is approximately 2% of the general population. The onset of the disorder is usually in early childhood and it is more common in males. Risk factors... -
Onycholysis
What is Onycholysis? Onycholysis is the separation of a fingernail or toenail from its pink nail bed. The separation occurs gradually and is painless. Causes The most common cause of onycholysis is trauma, especially when it is repeated as in daily taping of long fingernails on the keyboard/counter. It can also be due to the use of manicure tools that are pushed beneath the nails to clear the dirt. Other causes include- Fungal infection of nails Skin conditions like allergy... -
Onychomycosis (Nail Fungus)
What is Onychomycosis? Onychomycosis is generally referred to as a non-dermatophytic infection of the nail which is the term used commonly to indicate any fungal infection of the nail. Tinea unguium however differs from onychomycosis as it is the dermatophytic invasion of the nail plate. Prevalence estimates range from 1% to 8%, and the incidence is increasing gradually. Men are more likely to get it than women. The older you are, the better your chances are, too. People who have... -
Oral Thrush
What is Oral Thrush? Oral candidiasis or thrush is an infection of the oral cavity by Candida albicans. The infection occurs secondary to immunosuppression where the immunity may be decreased orally or in general. In a healthy person, the immune system and normal flora of bacteria inhibits the growth of candida. However, immunosuppression in such persons due to any systemic illness may favour the growth of candida and cause oral thrush. The infection is more common in immunocompromised hosts and... -
Orchitis
What is Orchitis? Orchitis is defined as the inflammation of the testicle unilaterally or bilaterally usually caused by viruses and bacteria. Testes are male reproductive organs in the scrotum and are responsible for the production of male sex hormones and sperm. The major route for the spread of infection to the testicle is blood- borne dissemination for isolated orchitis which is very rare. Ascending infections can also occur. Orchitis develops in 14% to 35% postpubertal patients with mumps. Also, mumps... -
Panic Attack
What is Panic Attack? Panic attacks are defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Health Disorders (DSM) as "an abrupt surge of intense fear or discomfort" reaching a peak within minutes. Panic disorder, however, is a separate entity and is characterised by recurrent, unexpected panic attacks. A hallmark feature of panic disorder is that it occurs without any warning. Panic attacks can occur alongside other disorders like anxiety, mood disorder and substance use disorder. Panic disorder, according to... -
Parkinson
What is Parkinson's Disease? Parkinson disease is a neurodegenerative disorder that mostly presents in later life with generalized slowing of movements (bradykinesia) and at least one other symptom of resting tremor or rigidity. It is idiopathic parkinsonism without evidence of more widespread neurologic involvement. More than 10 million people worldwide are living with PD and men have a greater preponderance to develop the disease than women. It affects the population over the age of 60 years. Causes The disorder is... -
Peptic Ulcer
What is Peptic Ulcer? Peptic ulcer disease (PUD) is characterized by discontinuation in the inner lining of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract because of gastric acid secretion or pepsin. This is usually confined to the stomach and proximal duodenum. Gastric ulcers are most commonly located on the lesser curvature of the stomach differentiating them from duodenal ulcers which are located at the duodenal bulb. The main mechanism behind the pathogenesis of peptic ulcer is the imbalance between gastric mucosal protective and... -
Pneumonia
What is Pneumonia? Pneumonia is a form of acute respiratory infection that affects the lungs. In this condition, the alveoli are filled with pus and fluids limiting the supply of oxygen to the lungs. Pneumonia is the single largest infectious cause of death in children worldwide. Classic Pneumonia goes through 4 pathologic changes or phases, namely - Consolidation : Occurs in the first 24 hrs. Presence of a proteinaceous exudate and often, bacteria in the alveoli. Marked by cough and... -
Pre-Diabetes
What is Pre-Diabetes? Prediabetes is the condition preceded by diabetes mellitus. It is a chronic metabolic condition where blood glucose levels are above the upper threshold considered normal but below the threshold for a diagnosis of diabetes. Hence, the sugar levels do not meet the required criteria for the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus. The prevalence of prediabetes is increasing worldwide and it is projected that more than 470 million people will have prediabetes in 2030. The condition starts with the... -
Premenstrual Syndrome
What is Premenstrual Syndrome? Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) encompasses clinically significant somatic and psychological manifestations during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, leading to substantial distress and impairment in functional capacity. The symptoms of PMS disappear within a few days of the onset of menstruation. About 80% to 90% of women manifest at least one of signs of PMS and in about 3% of women, the syndrome might affect their daily activities and social communications. This type of PMS is... -
Presbyopia
What is Presbyopia? Presbyopia is a visual condition which becomes apparent especially in middle age and in which loss of elasticity of the lens of the eye causes defective accommodation and inability to focus sharply for near vision. It is the most common cause of visual impairment in older adults. The condition begins usually around the age of 40 years. Due to lack of proper awareness and poor affordability due to economic background, presbyopes do not get the condition corrected... -
Pressure Injury
What is Pressure Injury? Pressure injuries are defined as localized damage to the skin as well as underlying soft tissue, usually occurring over a bony prominence or related to medical devices. They are usually the result of prolonged or severe pressure due to shear and friction forces. These pressure injuries remain a major problem within hospitals and result in decreased quality of life rendering high costs for both the patient and health care system. The incidence of pressure injury depends... -
Priapism
What is Priapism? Priapism is a disorder in which the penis maintains a prolonged erection in the absence of appropriate stimulation. There are three main types of priapism- Ischemic Non-ischemic Recurrent ischemic Ischemic driven priapism is an emergency condition and requires prompt intervention to prevent the damage to the penis. If left untreated, penile necrosis occurs leading to fibrosis. Globally, the overall incidence of priapism is 1.5 cases per 100,000 person-years. Aetiology In about two thirds of patients, the cause... -
Pseudogout (CPPD)
What is Pseudogout? Calcium pyrophosphate deposition disease (CPPD) is a crystal deposition arthropathy involving the synovial and periarticular tissues. The condition can present as acute or chronic inflammatory arthritis. Acute calcium pyrophosphate (CPP) deposition arthritis, frequently referred to as "pseudogout" presents as an acute flare of synovitis that resembles acute urate arthropathy (gout). The common crystals involved are calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate. Most patients affected by acute calcium pyrophosphate deposition arthritis are over the age of 65 years. Aetiology The deposition... -
Psoriasis
What is Psoriasis? Psoriasis is a chronic proliferative and inflammatory condition of the skin which is characterized by erythematous plaques covered with silvery scales particularly over the extensor surfaces, scalp, and lumbosacral region. The pathophysiology is characterised by the infiltration of the skin by activated T cells which stimulate proliferation of keratinocytes and this results in the formation of thick plaques. Psoriasis occurs worldwide and its incidence varies. The age distribution is bimodal with first presentation ranging from 15-20 years... -
Rectal Abscess
What is Rectal Abscess? The presentation of anorectal abscess may vary on the spectrum of complexity based on the location and involvement of surrounding tissue. It is typically caused by the inflammation of the subcutaneous tissue usually from an obstructed crypt gland. A perirectal abscess may be further divided according to anatomical location as ischiorectal abscess, intersphincteric abscess and supralevator abscess. The incidence is 16.1-20.2 per 100,000 per year, and the rate of subsequent fistula formation following an abscess is... -
Rectal Bleeding
What is Rectal Bleeding? Rectal bleeding, or hematochezia, is a frequently encountered problem in the outpatient setting. It can suggest a pathology in the proximal lower gastrointestinal tract but it can also be due to other rectal conditions. The presentation may range from mild to severe depending upon the aetiology of the bleeding. It usually presents as a frank red blood exiting from the anus. It is just 40% of the patients that seek medical care for rectal bleeding. Also,... -
Restless leg syndrome
What is Restless Leg Syndrome? Restless legs syndrome, or Willis-Ekbom Disease, is a common, chronic, multifactorial, movement disorder of the limbs in which patients have an irresistible urge to move the legs. This condition starts with abnormal and non-painful sensations that start at rest and are improved by activity. The symptoms are worse at rest and during sleep. In the idiopathic form of Restless Legs Syndrome, it is hypothesized that a dysfunction in the levels of dopamine and iron stores... -
Rickets
What is Rickets? Rickets is characterized by a defect in mineralization and the widening of the epiphyseal plates. Nutritional rickets is the most common cause of bone disease all over the world. Osteomalacia is basically a defect in the mineralization of the bone matrix occurring in adults. Rickets is seen commonly in children. The prevalence of rickets is higher in developed countries. However, the prevalence has reduced in the developed countries significantly due to widespread introduction of dietary vitamin D... -
Ringworm (Tinea)
What is Ringworm? Tinea is a superficial fungal skin infection of the body caused by dermatophytes. The dermatophyte has the ability to attach to the keratinised tissue of the skin which leads to the superficial infection. The lesion is defined by the location of the lesions that may involve the trunk, neck, arms, and legs. Classification of the infection as per the location can be- Scalp (Tinea capitis) Face (Tinea faciei) Hands (Tinea manuum) Groin (Tinea cruris) Feet (Tinea pedis)... -
Rosacea
What is Rosacea? Rosacea is a common chronic inflammatory disease that presents with recurrent flushing, erythema, telangiectasia, papules, or pustules on nose, chin, cheeks, and forehead. The four clinical subtypes of rosacea based on the sign and symptoms can be defined as- Erythematotelangiectatic Papulopustular Phymatous Ocular Factors like neurovascular dysregulation, overactive immune system and infestation with Demodex mites play an important role in the development of rosacea. Microbes like Demodex folliculorum and Helicobacter pylori can trigger the activation of the... -
Schizophrenia
What is Schizophrenia? Schizophrenia is a functional psychotic disorder characterized by the presence of delusional beliefs, hallucinations, and disturbances in thought, perception, and behaviour. Studies suggest that schizophrenia is a neurodevelopmental disorder based on abnormalities present in the cerebral structure, an absence of gliosis suggesting in utero changes and the observation that motor and cognitive impairments in patients precede the illness onset. The prevalence of the disease varies globally. It is estimated that it affects approximately 1% of adults, men... -
Shingles (Herpes Zoster)
What are Shingles? Herpes zoster is commonly known as shingles. It is a viral disease caused by reactivation of varicella-zoster virus which remains dormant in the sensory ganglia of the cranial nerve or the dorsal root ganglia after a previous varicella infection. Varicella is also commonly known as chicken pox occurs in children whereas herpes zoster occurs in adults. The virus causes blistering on the skin and these lesions produce Varicella- zoster-specific T- cell proliferation. There is no seasonal variation... -
Sinusitis
What is Sinusitis? A condition in which the tissue lining the sinuses (small hollow spaces in the bones around the nose) becomes swollen or inflamed is called sinusitis. It is one of the most common health complaints related to physician visits. Approximately 0.5% of all upper respiratory tract infections are complicated by sinusitis. The incidence of acute sinusitis ranges from 15 to 40 episodes per 1000 patients per year. The condition is more common in adults than children. The basic... -
Sleep Disorders
What are Sleep Disorders? Sleep disorders comprise a group of conditions that disturb the normal sleep pattern of a person. It is one of the most commonly encountered clinical problems which can affect the quality of life immensely. Insomnia is significantly associated with this. Sleep disorders can be classified into primary and secondary sleep disorders. Primary sleep disorders arise from endogenous causes. They can be further divided into Parasomnias (unusual behaviours during sleep like sleep walking, nightmares etc.) and Dyssomnias... -
Smoking Cessation
Introduction Tobacco is used primarily as cigarette smoking and it is well established that it is the leading cause of preventable disease and death. Smoking increases the risk of different forms of cancer, including lung, liver, and colorectal. Also, eighty-five percent of lung cancers occur in smokers. Smoking predisposes an individual to the risk of respiratory diseases (such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) and cardiovascular disease. During pregnancy, smoking increases the rate of complications like miscarriage, stillbirth, preterm birth, foetal... -
Teething / Dentition
What is Teething? Teething is the process by which an infant's first teeth (the deciduous teeth, often called "baby teeth" or "milk teeth") sequentially appear by emerging through the gums, typically arriving in pairs. Teething usually begins when a baby is between 6 and 8 months old. Some children do not show any teeth until much later than 8 months, but this is usually normal. The two bottom front teeth (lower incisors) usually come in first. Next to grow in... -
Tendinitis
What is Tendinitis? Tendinitis, also known as tendonitis, is the inflammation of a tendon. It happens when a person overuses or injures a tendon, for example, during sport. It is normally linked to an acute injury with inflammation. It often affects the elbow, wrist, finger, thigh, and other parts of the body. Risk factors Tendons become less flexible with age and more susceptible to injury. A person whose job involves repetitive movements, awkward positions, frequently reaching overhead, vibration, and forceful... -
Tension Headache
What is Tension Headache? Tension headaches are often caused by tense head or neck muscles. A tension headache is generally a diffuse, mild to moderate pain in your head that's often described as feeling like a tight band around your head. Tension headaches vary over a wide range from 1.3% to 65% in men and 2.7% to 86% in women. Risk Factors Lifestyle Factors: Stress, tiredness, or anger can cause tension headaches. Other risks are smoking and not getting enough... -
Thyroid Disease
What is Thyroid Disease? Thyroid disease occurs when the thyroid gland doesn't supply the proper amount of hormones needed by the body. If the thyroid is overactive, it releases too much thyroid hormone into the bloodstream, resulting in hyperthyroidism. ("Hyper" is from the Greek, meaning "over" or "above.") Hyperthyroidism causes the body to use up energy more quickly than it should, and chemical activity (like metabolism) in the cells speeds up. An underactive thyroid produces too little thyroid hormone, resulting... -
Tonsillitis
What is Tonsillitis? Tonsillitis is the inflammation of tonsils and is caused due to viral or bacterial infection and presents as a sore throat when uncomplicated. The tonsils are composed of Waldeyer's ring along with the adenoids (nasopharyngeal tonsil), tubal tonsil, and lingual tonsils. They serve as an important defence against inhaled or ingested pathogens by providing the initial immunological barrier to external impressions. The incidence of tonsillitis varies and the disease makes up to almost 1.3% of the outpatient... -
Torn Knee Meniscus
What is Torn Knee Meniscus? The lateral and medial menisci are crescent-shaped fibrocartilaginous structures that collectively cover approximately 70% of the articular surface of the tibial plateau. The primary function of the menisci is load transmission and shock absorption through the tibiofemoral joint. 70 percent of each meniscus is made up of a network of type1 collagen which is arranged primarily in circumferential direction. Meniscal tears are categorized by both their shape and location when visualised on MRI. Knee meniscal... -
Travellers Diarrhoea
What is Traveller's Diarrhoea? Traveller's diarrhoea is a common ailment in persons traveling to resource-limited destinations overseas. It is considered as three or more loose stools in 24 hours or a two-fold increase from baseline bowel habits. This is the most common travel-associated condition and affects nearly 60 percent of travellers. There is no immunity against future attacks and it appears to occur commonly in warmer climates. Factors like poor sanitation and lack of refrigeration play an important role in... -
Typhoid Fever
What is Typhoid Fever? Typhoid fever, also called enteric fever, is characterized by systemic illness along with abdominal pain and fever in a "step-ladder" pattern. It is caused by Salmonella typhi and Salmonella paratyphi. Enteric fever is a cumulative term that includes both typhoid and paratyphoid fever. The virulence of Salmonella is determined by typhoid toxin, Vi antigen (polysaccharide capsule), liposaccharide O antigen, and flagellar H antigen. According to the most recent estimates, between 11 and 21 million cases and... -
Ulcerative Colitis
What is Ulcerative Colitis? Ulcerative colitis is an idiopathic inflammatory condition of the colon which results in diffuse friability and superficial erosions on the colonic wall associated with bleeding. The inflammation is characteristically involving inflammation limited to mucosa and submucosa of the colon. The entire pathophysiology of ulcerative colitis involves defects in the epithelial barrier, immune response, leukocyte recruitment, and microflora of the colon. It is the most common IBD (Inflammatory Bowel Disease) occurring worldwide. Globally, the incidence of IBD... -
Underactive Thyroid (Hypothyroidism)
What is Hypothyroidism? Hypothyroidism or underactive thyroid results from low levels of thyroid hormone with various aetiologies. The most common cause of hypothyroidism is the inability of the thyroid gland to produce a sufficient amount of thyroid hormone. It may also result from pituitary and hypothalamus dysfunction as hypothalamus secretes thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) that stimulates the pituitary gland to produce thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to produce and secrete mainly T4 and T3 (in smaller quantities). Alteration... -
Upper Respiratory Tract Infection
What is Upper Respiratory Tract Infection? Upper respiratory tract infections can be defined as self-limited irritation and swelling of the upper airways with associated cough and no signs of pneumonia, in a patient with no other condition that would account for their symptoms, or with no history of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, emphysema, or chronic bronchitis. These infections involve only the nose, sinuses, pharynx, larynx, and large airways. It is very difficult to define most of the forms of upper... -
Urethritis
What is Urethritis? Urethritis is characterised by the inflammation of the urethra and is a lower urinary tract infection. It is associated with gonococcal or nongonococcal infections. The cause is usually infectious with Sexually transmitted diseases (STD's), being the most common. The incidence of Neisseria gonorrhoea is estimated at over 600,000 new cases annually, and the incidence of nongonococcal urethritis is approximately 3 million new cases annually. It is more commonly diagnosed in males. Aetiology Trauma is not the common... -
Urinary Incontinence
What is Urinary Incontinence? Urinary incontinence is the involuntary leakage of urine. The condition is commonly seen in elderly, especially in nursing homes but it can also affect younger adults and both genders. It is estimated that around 423 million people (20 years and older) worldwide experience some form of urinary incontinence. However, various different forms of incontinence like stress urinary incontinence, urge urinary incontinence, mixed urinary incontinence, overflow urinary incontinence and functional urinary incontinence are found with varying prevalence.... -
Urinary Retention
What is Urinary Retention? Urinary retention is defined as the inability to void urine voluntarily. The condition may be acute or chronic. Acute retention is sudden inability to urinate and chronic retention is the gradual inability to completely empty the bladder. The condition is more common in men with prostatic enlargement. Neurogenic causes of urinary retention occur in younger males and females. Aetiology Urinary retention may be caused due to a blockage that partially or fully prevents the flow of... -
Urinary Tract Infection
What is Urinary Tract Infection? Urinary tract infection (UTI) is a bacterial infection of the bladder and associated structures. It is also called uncomplicated UTI or cystitis. UTI when seen in males is usually complicated. Women have a shorter urethra than men and hence they are more prone to develop UTI. An uncomplicated UTI involves only the bladder. Cystitis is produced when the bacteria invade the bladder mucosal wall. The infection occurs usually between the ages of 16 and 35... -
Urticaria
What is Urticaria? The term urticaria has been derived from a common European stinging nettle, Urtica dioica. It is a condition characterised by itchy weal (hives), with or without surrounding erythematous flares. A wheal (weal) is a typical superficial skin-coloured or pale skin swelling, usually surrounded by erythema that lasts from few minutes to 24 hours. The current classification of urticaria may be defined as: - Acute spontaneous urticaria: Spontaneous occurrence of wheals and/or angioedema for a total duration of... -
Uterine Bleeding
What is Uterine Bleeding? Abnormal uterine bleeding (AUB) is a broad term that describes irregularities in the menstrual cycle involving frequency, regularity, duration, and volume of flow outside of pregnancy. It is experienced usually at menarche and perimenopause. The phenomena can be divided into acute and chronic. Acute AUB usually occurs on its own or superimposed on chronic AUB which is irregularity in menstrual bleeding for more than six months. The prevalence of abnormal uterine bleeding among reproductive-aged women internationally... -
Vaginal Candidiasis
What is Vaginal Candidiasis? Vulvovaginitis, or inflammation of the vulva and vagina, most commonly occurs in reproductive-aged women and is usually secondary to infection. Candidal vulvovaginitis occurs in almost one third of cases. The condition occurs when Candida species superficially penetrate the mucosal lining of the vagina and cause an inflammatory response. Almost 70 percent of women complain of vaginal candidiasis at some point in their lifetimes. Aetiology Candidal vulvovaginitis is caused by inflammatory changes in the vaginal and vulvar... -
Vaginitis
What is Vaginitis? Vaginitis is a frequently encountered problem amongst physicians attending female patients. It is very important to have a firm understanding of the normal vaginal findings on examination. The composition of vaginal flora determines the pH of the vagina. Lactobacilli is mainly responsible for the production of glycogen which is metabolized to lactic acid maintaining the acid value of 3.8-4.2. However, in pre-pubertal girls and post-menopausal women, the lack of oestrogen leads to deficiency of glycogen and eventually,... -
Varicose Veins
What are Varicose Veins? Varicose veins are enlarged, twisted veins that can happen anywhere in the body, but are more common in the legs. Venous reflux, also known as chronic venous insufficiency, is a common condition that causes varicose veins. Venous reflux originates as a result of failure of the venous valves in the saphenous veins. This failure leads to retrograde flow and stasis, or pooling, of venous blood in the branches of the saphenous veins. The normal ambulatory venous... -
Vertigo
What is Vertigo? Vertigo is described as a sensation of motion, most commonly rotational motion and is a symptom of vestibular dysfunction. The symptoms of vertigo result due to asymmetry in the vestibular system. The asymmetry may result from damage or dysfunction in the peripheral system, such as the vestibular labyrinth or vestibular nerve or a central disturbance in the brainstem or cerebellum. Vertigo affects men and women equally and it has been associated with various comorbid conditions, including depression... -
Voiding Disorders
What are Voiding Disorders? The normal micturition process requires the proper function of both bladder and urethra. Also, normal functioning of detrusor muscle and competency of internal and external urethral sphincters is essential to ensure a healthy urinary incontinence. Bladder dysfunction or voiding disorders vary with the neuroanatomy and neurophysiology disorders of the upper and lower urinary tract system. Any abnormal functioning of the related structures due to trauma or a disease can cause bladder dysfunction. Almost, 70 to 84%... -
Vomiting
What is Vomiting? Vomiting or emesis is clinically defined as the oral eviction of gastrointestinal contents, due to contractions of the gut and the muscles of the thoracoabdominal wall. Physiologically, vomiting is considered to be a somatic driven process which is controlled by the emetic centre and chemoreceptor trigger zone of medulla. The stimulation of these centres induces a series of events which cause vomiting. Causes Though vomiting is a very common reason for consultation, it is often self-limiting. But... -
Vulvodynia
What is Vulvodynia? Vulvodynia is defined as a vulvar pain of at least three months' duration, without a clear, identifiable cause, which may have potential associated factors. It is a diagnosis of exclusion and is an idiopathic pain disorder. The pain may be generalised or localised depending on the location. It may also be spontaneous or provoked. It could occur throughout a patient's life or just with a new partner (primary or secondary) and/or it can be intermittent, persistent, constant,... -
Weakness/Asthenia
What is Weakness? Asthenia, also known as weakness, is the feeling of body fatigue or tiredness. It is best defined as a lack of energy to move muscles in the body. Weakness can be either temporary or permanent depending on the underlying cause. Aetiology Some of the most common causes of asthenia are- Flu Thyroid disorder Anaemia Depression or anxiety Sleep disorders Congestive heart failure Vitamin B12 deficiency Chemotherapy Less common causes of weakness include cancer, nerve or muscle injuries... -
Warts
What are Warts? Warts are benign lesions that occur in the mucosa and skin caused by Human papillomavirus (HPV) virus. The most common subtypes of HPV causing warts are 6, 11, 16, 18, 31, and 35. Though warts are benign generally, they might become malignant and develop into verrucous carcinoma. Verrucous carcinoma is a slow growing tumour and it is classified as well-differentiated squamous cell malignancy that is often mistaken for a common wart. The primary manifestations of HPV infection... -
Whooping Cough
What is Whooping Cough? Whooping cough also known by the name of pertussis, "the cough of 100 days" is a serious illness caused by Bordetella pertussis. The disease was first described in 1906. The organism is a gram-negative coccobacillus that lodges in the ciliated respiratory epithelial cells. This leads to some inflammatory changes in the mucosal lining of the respiratory tract and the toxins released act locally and systemically. The organism is never found in the blood cultures. Pertussis largely...