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Abdominal Pain
What is Abdominal Pain? Abdominal pain or stomach pain refers to discomfort in the space between the chest and pelvis. It is a common complaint which can be caused by trivial to life threatening conditions. Abdominal pain is a common reason for visits to emergency accounting for 7-10% of all Emergency visits but in the majority of the cases it is mild and self-limiting. Causes Abdominal pain can be caused or complicated by a variety of factors. Some most common... -
Acidosis
What is Acidosis? Acidosis is a process or processes leading to increased acidity in blood and body tissues. Acidemia is a low blood pH falling below 7.35. There can be Metabolic acidosis or Respiratory Acidosis. Causes Metabolic acidosis can occur due to ketoacidosis, diarrhoea (bicarbonate loss) or renal failure. Respiratory acidosis is due to an increase of carbon dioxide in blood caused by lung problems - chronic bronchitis, emphysema, severe pneumonia, aspiration, head injury, certain drugs and brain tumour. Signs... -
Acne
What is Acne? Acne Vulgaris is an inflammatory skin disorder of the pilosebaceous unit, triggered by Cutibacterium acnes in adolescence, under the influence of normal circulating DHEA. It is a very common disorder affecting mainly teenagers and young adults, although 10-20% of adults may continue to be affected by it. It occurs when dead skin and oil/sebum from the skin clog hair follicles causing pimples, blackheads or whiteheads, and oily skin and may heal with scarring. Mostly found on the... -
ADHD
What is ADHD? Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a mental health disorder that can cause inattention, or excessive activity and impulsiveness which is not appropriate for age. Both adults and children can have ADHD. More than 60% of children with ADHD continue to have symptoms in adulthood. DSM V: Types of ADHD Predominantly inattentive Predominantly impulsive or hyperactive Combination of the above The onset is usually before age 12 Symptoms present at school, work or home The disturbance causes... -
Alcohol Abuse/Alcoholism
What is Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism? Alcohol is a psychoactive substance with dependence-producing properties. Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism are two terms which are often used interchangeably but they have marked differences. Alcohol abusers are those people who take too much alcohol on occasions leading to risky behaviours. On the other hand, Alcoholism means a person needs alcohol on a daily basis i.e. it has become an addiction. It can cause adverse effects on the digestive and cardiovascular systems and may... -
Allergy
What is Allergy? Allergy is an exaggerated or pathological immunological reaction to substances, situations, or physical states that are without comparable effect on the average individual. It is an altered bodily reactivity, such as hypersensitivity, to an antigen in response to exposure. "What is food to one man may be fierce poison to others" - Lucretius, 1st Century B.C. Causes Genetic, environmental and site-specific factors contribute to the development of allergy. The major environmental factors are alterations in exposure to... -
Alopecia/Hair Loss
What is Alopecia? Alopecia, also known as hair loss or baldness, is an autoimmune condition characterized by loss of hair from part of the head or body, but mostly it is seen affecting the head. It can be in a small patch or may affect the entire body and leads to evident stress and embarrassment. Alopecia areata affects nearly 2% of the population at some point during their lifetime. Alopecia can be subdivided into two main categories: scarring and non-scarring.... -
Amnesia
What is Amnesia? Amnesia is a memory deficit or loss due to a brain disease. Although a mild loss of memory is common with increasing age, an evident degree of memory loss may indicate an underlying condition. There are 2 types of Amnesia - Retrograde and Anterograde Amnesia. Retrograde amnesia is when one loses the memories previously made. It may be the memories of a few years or months before a particular date corresponding to the date of an accident... -
Anxiety and Panic Attacks
What are Anxiety and Panic Attacks? Anxiety is an abnormal and overwhelming sense of apprehension and fear often marked by physical signs (such as tension, sweating, and increased pulse rate), by doubt concerning the reality and nature of the threat, and by self-doubt about one's capacity to cope with it. Panic attack is a brief episode of intense fear or dread that is of sudden onset and typically subsides within 30 minutes, usually occurring for no apparent reason but may... -
Arthritis
What is Arthritis? Arthritis is an inflammation of joints due to infectious, metabolic, or constitutional causes. There are more than 100 types of arthritis which have different cause and treatment measures. Joint pain, stiffness and swelling are the most common symptoms. There may be reduction in the range of motion, redness on the joint, with symptoms worse in the morning in many cases. Some of the most common types of arthritis are: Osteoarthritis and Rheumatoid Arthritis. Inflammatory arthritis can be... -
Asthma
What is Asthma? Asthma is a syndrome characterized by recurrent episodes of breathing difficulty, cough (often at night), sputum and wheeze caused by reversible airway obstruction. Majority of the cases have a childhood-onset disease and are associated with other features of atopy, such as eczema and hayfever. Asthmatics suffer from an attack with periods of normal function. It is estimated that more than 339 million people suffer from asthma globally. Causes There is no single cause identified for Asthma, but... -
Blurring of Vision
What is Blurred Vision? Blurring of vision is the lack of sharpness of vision resulting in difficulty to see fine details. It can affect one eye or both eyes depending on the cause. Causes Blurring of vision can be due to many conditions, some common ones are: Refractive errors - Myopia, Hypermetropia or astigmatism Corneal abrasion - Loss of the surface epithelial layer of the eye's cornea. They are extremely painful due to nerve exposure and can cause tearing, squinting... -
Bruxism
What is Bruxism? Bruxism can be defined as the involuntary, unconscious, and excessive grinding of teeth. During bruxism, there is forceful contact between the biting surfaces of maxillary and mandibular teeth. It may occur while awake, and it is then called wakeful or diurnal bruxism, and also during sleep, which is known as nocturnal bruxism. The main cause of bruxism is unidentified but is known to involve multiple factors. Bruxism can be subclassified into primary and secondary, whereas primary bruxism... -
Bunion
What is a Bunion? Hallux valgus (HV), also known as a bunion, is one of the most common forefoot deformities, manifesting with the proximal phalanx deviating laterally and the first metatarsal head deviating medially. It occurs due to the adduction of the first metatarsus, called metatarsus primus varus and is more commonly seen in women and those who wear tight shoes or heels. Causes The exact etiology is not fully understood, but there are many proposed theories. HV deformity is... -
Burn Care
What is a Burn? A burn is an injury to the skin or other organic tissue caused by heat or due to radiation, radioactivity, electricity, friction or contact with chemicals. Almost 86% of burns are caused by thermal injury, while about 4% are electrical and 3% are chemical. Flame and scald burns are the leading cause of burns in children and adults. Thermal (heat) burns occur when some or all of the cells in the skin or other tissues are... -
Bursitis
What is Bursitis? Bursitis is a swelling or inflammation of a bursa, which is a synovium-lined, sac-like structure found all over the body near bony prominences and between bones, muscles, tendons, and ligaments. Bursae facilitates movement in the musculoskeletal system, by creating a cushion between tissues that move against one another. Due to its inflammation, the bursa enlarges with fluid, and any movement against or direct pressure upon the bursa will cause pain. There are many causes of bursitis, including... -
Cellulitis
What is Cellulitis? Cellulitis is a common bacterial skin infection responsible for 551?000 DALYs and 42.9 million incident cases in 2019 globally. It presents as a poorly demarcated, warm, erythematous area with associated oedema and tenderness. It is an acute bacterial infection causing inflammation of the deep dermis and surrounding subcutaneous tissue. Causes Cellulitis most commonly results from infection with group A beta-hemolytic streptococcus (i.e., Streptococcus pyogenes). Risk factors for cellulitis include any condition that could cause a breakdown in... -
Chlamydia
What is Chlamydia? Chlamydia is a sexually transmitted infectious disease caused by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis. It is the most common sexually transmitted infection affecting globally. It causes an ocular infection called "trachoma," which is the leading infectious cause of blindness worldwide. In females, the cervix is most commonly infected and the infection can manifest as cervicitis, urethritis, pelvic inflammatory disease, perihepatitis, or proctitis. Chlamydial infections in women, if untreated, increase the risk of infertility and ectopic pregnancy. Infants born... -
Chronic Back Pain
What is Back Pain? Back pain is one of the most common complaints for which people visit the doctor or miss work due to disability. Lower back pain or Lumbago is not a disease but a symptom of several types of disorders. It can present as a dull aching in back, a stabbing or shooting pain radiating down the leg to foot, an inability to stand straight or as a decreased range of movement and restricted flexion of back. Types... -
Common Cold (Viral Rhinitis)
What is Viral Rhinitis Rhinitis refers to the inflammation of the nasal mucosal linings which is usually associated with environmental allergies or respiratory viral infections. Acute Viral Rhinitis is the most common form of any infectious disease of the human body. Common complaints and physical findings related to AVR are similar to those seen with other types of rhinitis such as allergic, hormonal, senile, or drug induced. Causes Human rhinoviruses (HRV) are responsible for up to half of the cases... -
Common Wart
What is a Wart? Warts are benign lesions that occur in the mucosa and skin caused by the human papillomavirus (HPV). HPV may occur at any site and are easily transmitted by direct or indirect contact, especially if there is the disruption of the normal epithelial barrier. Common warts are associated with HPV types 2, 4 (most common), followed by types 1, 3, 27, 29, and 57. They are common worldwide and affect approximately 10% of the population. In school-aged... -
Corns
What are corns? Corns are thick, hardened layers of skin that develop when your skin tries to protect itself against friction and pressure. They most often develop on the feet and toes or hands and fingers. Corns tend to be small and round and can be unsightly for some people. Most people seek prompt removal of corns because of cosmetic reasons. Types of corns Hard corns: These are small, hard dense areas of skin usually within a larger area of... -
Dementia
What is Dementia? According to WHO, Dementia is a syndrome, usually of a chronic or progressive nature, in which there is deterioration in cognitive function (i.e. the ability to process thought) beyond what might be expected from normal ageing. It affects memory, thinking, orientation, comprehension, calculation, learning capacity, language, and judgement. Consciousness remains unaffected. The impairment in cognitive function is accompanied, and at times preceded, by deterioration in emotional control, social behaviour, or motivation. Dementia is one of the major... -
Dental Abscess
What is Dental abscess? Dental abscesses or periapical infections typically arise secondary to dental caries, trauma, or failed dental root canal treatment. The different types of dental abscesses depend on location. The three most common types are: Periapical abscess is an abscess at the tip of a tooth's root. Periodontal abscess is an abscess on the gum next to the root of a tooth. It might also spread to the surrounding tissue and bone. Gingival abscess is an abscess on... -
Depression
What is Depression? Depression is a mood disorder that causes a persistent feeling of sadness and loss of interest. The American Psychiatric Associationעs Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) classifies the depressive disorders into: Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder Major depressive disorder Persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia) Premenstrual dysphoric disorder Depressive disorder due to another medical condition Causes The etiology of major depressive disorder is multifactorial with both genetic and environmental factors playing a role. Depression results from a... -
Dermal Ulcer
What is Dermal Ulcer? Dermal ulcer or skin ulcer is an open sore resulting from an injury, poor circulation or pressure. It can develop on any part of the body but are most common on lower extremities, mouth or lips, hips and gluteal region. Types of Ulcer Venous skin ulcers: Shallow, open sores that develop in the skin of the lower extremities due to poor blood circulation. Arterial (ischemic) skin ulcers: They can form on the outside of the ankle,... -
Dermatitis
What is Dermatitis? Dermatitis refers to the inflammation of skin and comprises a range of ailments. In general, dermatitis presents with dry, swollen and red skin, causes and features of which, vary according to the type of dermatitis. The common symptoms to all types of dermatitis are - rashes, dry cracked skin, itching, blisters, stinging or burning pain, redness and swelling. Types of Dermatitis There are many types of dermatitis known, the most common ones are: Atopic Dermatitis or Eczema:... -
Diabetes mellitus
What is Diabetes Mellitus? Diabetes Mellitus (DM) is a metabolic disease, involving inappropriately elevated blood glucose levels. DM has several categories, including type 1, type 2, maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY), gestational diabetes, neonatal diabetes, and secondary causes due to endocrinopathies, steroid use, etc. Globally, 1 in 11 adults has DM (90% having T2DM). The onset of T1DM gradually increases from birth and peaks at ages 4 to 6 years and then again from 10 to 14 years. Types... -
Earache / Otitis
What is Earache or Otalgia? Otalgia or ear pain can be divided into: primary and secondary otalgia. Primary otalgia is ear pain that occurs from an underlying pathology in the inner, middle, or external ear. Secondary or referred otalgia is ear pain that occurs from pathology located outside the ear. Causes Primary otalgia most commonly occurs due to infectious, mechanical, neoplastic, and inflammatory causes. Acute otitis media (AOM) is the most common cause of primary otalgia in children. In adults,... -
Eating Disorders
What are Eating Disorders? Eating disorders are defined as the disruption in the eating behavior with excessive concern about body weight that impairs physical health or psychosocial functioning. DSM-5 mentions eight categories in feeding and eating disorders: Anorexia nervosa Bulimia nervosa Binge eating disorder Avoidant or restrictive food intake disorder Pica Rumination Other specified feeding and eating disorders: Purging disorder Night eating syndrome Atypical anorexia nervosa Subthreshold bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder Orthorexia Unspecified feeding and eating disorders Causes... -
Edema / Oedema
What is Oedema? Oedema is an abnormal infiltration and excess accumulation of serous fluid in connective tissue or in a serous cavity. Edema can affect any part of the body and ranges from local swelling to anasarca, depending on the underlying pathology. Causes Causes of the peripheral oedema can be divided depending on the underlying mechanism: Increased Capillary Hydrostatic Pressure Regional venous hypertension (often unilateral): Deep vein thrombosis, Compartment syndrome, Chronic venous insufficiency. Systemic venous hypertension (often bilateral): Heart failure,... -
Elbow Sprain
What is Elbow Sprain? Elbow sprain is an injury to the soft tissues of the elbow caused due to stretching or tearing (partial or full) of the ligaments which support the elbow joint. Pulled or torn ligaments can be extremely painful and limit the ability to move the elbow. Causes The various causes of an elbow sprain are: Involuntary twisting of the arm during sports. Traumatic injury to the elbow due to accidents or a fall. Overstretching of the elbow... -
Epilepsy
What is Epilepsy? Epilepsy is a chronic noncommunicable disease of the brain affecting around 50 million people worldwide, characterized by recurrent seizures. Seizures are brief episodes of involuntary movement that may involve a part of the body (partial) or the entire body (generalized) and are sometimes accompanied by loss of consciousness and control of bowel or bladder function. They can vary from the briefest lapses of attention or muscle jerks to severe and prolonged convulsions. Epilepsy is defined as having... -
Esophagitis
What is Esophagitis? Esophagitis is the inflammation or injury to the esophageal mucosa characterised by a retrosternal chest pain, heartburn, dysphagia or odynophagia. One of the most common causes is gastroesophageal reflux, which can lead to erosive esophagitis. Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a chronic gastrointestinal disorder characterized by regurgitation of gastric contents into the oesophagus and it manifests with symptoms of heartburn and regurgitation. It is caused by multiple mechanisms leading to the disruption of the oesophagogastric junction barrier... -
Farsightedness (Hyperopia)
What is Farsightedness or Hyperopia? Hyperopia refers to the refractive condition of the eye where parallel light rays coming from the infinity are focussed behind the neurosensory retina (after refraction through the ocular media ) when accommodation is at rest. It is the most common refractive error in children. If left untreated after diagnosis, sequelae such as amblyopia and tropia can develop. Causes Hyperopia can be classified on the basis of cause: Axial hyperopia (simple hyperopia): Occurs due to anterior-posterior... -
Fatigue
What is Fatigue? Fatigue is the lack of energy and motivation (both physical and mental). It can be a normal response to physical and mental activity. In most cases it is quickly relieved, usually in hours to about a day, depending on the intensity of the activity, by reducing the activity. Fatigue is a very common complaint and is a symptom and not a disease. It usually has a gradual onset and the person is unaware of how much energy... -
Fibroids
What are Fibroids? Uterine fibroids or leiomyomata are the most common benign tumors affecting women originating from uterine smooth muscle cells (myometrium) the growth of which is dependent on the levels of circulating oestrogen. Fibroids can present as an asymptomatic incidental finding on imaging, or symptomatically. Common symptoms include abnormal uterine bleeding, pelvic pain, disruption of surrounding pelvic structures(bowel and bladder), and back pain. Uterine fibroids are seen in three significant locations: subserosal (outside the uterus), intramural (inside the myometrium),... -
Fibromyalgia
What is Fibromyalgia? Fibromyalgia (FM) is characterized by chronic widespread musculoskeletal pain accompanied by fatigue, cognitive disturbance, psychiatric and multiple somatic symptoms. Fibromyalgia has an unknown etiology and uncertain pathophysiology. Causes Fibromyalgia has an unknown etiology. It is triggered or aggravated by multiple physical and/or emotional stressors which include infections as well as emotional and physical trauma. There are pain and sensory processing alterations in the central nervous system. Known risk factors include: Most people are diagnosed during middle age... -
Flu (Influenza)
What is Influenza? Influenza is a communicable viral disease that affects the upper and lower respiratory tract and is caused by influenza viruses. A wide spectrum of influenza viruses causes it, among them there are 4 types of seasonal influenza viruses, types A, B, C and D. Influenza A viruses: Subtype A(H1N1) and A(H3N2) influenza viruses are the subtypes currently found affecting humans. Only this type is known to have caused pandemics. Influenza B viruses: currently circulating influenza type B... -
Food Allergy
What is Food Allergy? Food allergy is an abnormal response to a food caused by immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibody. It affects about 4% to 6% of children and 4% of adults, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Allergic reactions secondary to food ingestion are responsible for a variety of symptoms involving the skin, gastrointestinal system, and respiratory system. Risk Factors Risk factors for severe food allergies or anaphylaxis include: Asthma Prior episodes of anaphylaxis Delay in the... -
Frostbite
What is Frostbite? Frostbite, or freezing cold injury (FCI) is defined as tissue damage occurring as a result of cold exposure, occurring at temperatures below 0 degrees C. There is high risk for ischemic tissue injury and necrosis. Patients that survive cold tissue injury are prone to secondary infection and dehydration from loss of the skin barrier. It occurs when the body is exposed to intense cold, resulting in vasoconstriction. The resulting decrease in blood flow leads to ice crystal... -
Frozen Shoulder
What is a Frozen Shoulder? Adhesive capsulitis (AC) or frozen shoulder is an insidious inflammatory condition of the shoulder that causes fibrosis of the joint capsule and persists for more than 3 months. It is accompanied by gradually progressive stiffness and significant restriction of range of motion, especially external rotation. Females are 4 times more often affected than men, while the non-dominant shoulder is more prone to be affected. Causes The cause of the frozen shoulder is not yet fully... -
Gastroenteritis
What is Gastroenteritis? Gastroenteritis is inflammation of the lining of the stomach and small and large intestines characterized by anorexia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, and abdominal discomfort. Most cases are infectious, but it may also occur after ingestion of drugs and chemical toxins (eg, metals, plant substances). Gastritis is an inflammation of the protective lining of the stomach only. It is usually caused by certain bacteria or the regular use of anti-inflammatory painkillers. There are two kinds of gastritis: acute and... -
Gonorrhoea
What is Gonorrhoea? Neisseria gonorrhoeae is a sexually transmitted disease that causes worldwide morbidity and disproportionately impacts young adult populations. It is the second most common cause of bacterial sexually transmitted infections worldwide. The WHO estimates that 106 million new gonorrhea cases are documented among adults annually worldwide and many more infections go unreported. Causes The pathogen N. gonorrhoeae infects only humans and most commonly manifests as urethritis in men and cervicitis in women. To survive, these bacteria must infect... -
Gouty Arthritis
What is Gout? Gout is a metabolic disease marked by a painful inflammation of the joints, deposits of urates in and around the joints, and usually an excessive amount of uric acid in the blood. It is characterized by monosodium urate (MSU) monohydrate crystals deposition in the tissues. The prevalence of gout is higher among individuals with chronic diseases such as hypertension, chronic kidney disease, diabetes, obesity, congestive heart failure, and myocardial infarction. Risk Factors Hyperuricemia is the most important... -
Hemorrhoids
What are Haemorrhoids? The term haemorrhoids, also known as piles, and hemorrhoidal disease refer to the state of symptoms attributed to the vascular cushions present in the anal canal. These are naturally occurring vascular issues within the submucosa in the anal canal. They help in aiding stool continence by providing bulk to the anal canal. Haemorrhoids typically occur at three locations: left lateral, right anterior, right posterior positions. External haemorrhoids are covered by squamous epithelium and innervated by cutaneous nerves... -
Hepatitis
What is Hepatitis? Hepatitis is defined as inflammation of the liver that can result from a variety of causes such as heavy alcohol use, autoimmune, drugs, or toxins. The most frequent cause of hepatitis is due to viral infection and is referred to as viral hepatitis. If inflammation of the liver lasts for less than 6 months, then it is termed as acute hepatitis and if it lasts longer than 6 months it is termed as chronic hepatitis. Hepatitis results... -
Hypercholesterolemia
What is Hypercholesterolemia? Hypercholesterolemia or High cholesterol can be defined as a LDL-cholesterol greater than 190 mg/dL, greater than 160 mg/dL with one major risk factor, or greater than 130 mg/dL with two cardiovascular risk factors. The risk factors include- Age: male 45 years or older, female 55 years or older A positive family history of premature atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (younger than 55 years in a male and younger than 65yrs in a female) Hypertension Diabetes Smoking Low HDL-cholesterol levels... -
Hypertension
What is Hypertension? Hypertension is a condition in which the systolic blood pressure (SBP) of a person is ≥140 mm Hg and/or the diastolic blood pressure (DBP) is≥90 mm Hg following repeated examination. It is a serious medical condition that significantly increases the risk of heart, brain, kidney and other diseases. There are various mechanisms involved in hypertension which includes increased salt absorption resulting in volume expansion, an impaired response of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), increased activation of the sympathetic... -
Impotence (Erectile Dysfunction)
What is Impotence? Erectile dysfunction (ED), formerly termed impotence, is defined as "the inability to attain and/or maintain penile erection sufficient for satisfactory sexual performance" or "the consistent or recurrent inability to attain and/or maintain penile erection sufficient for sexual satisfaction". While there is no specific time period that is part of this definition, it is suggested that the condition needs to persist for six months. Some of the cases in younger men may be due to psychological causes but... -
Indigestion
What is Indigestion? Dyspepsia or indigestion (also called functional dyspepsia) is defined by the Rome II Committee on functional gastrointestinal disorders as chronic or recurrent pain or discomfort centered in the upper abdomen. Functional dyspepsia is one of the most common functional gastrointestinal disorders and affects more than 20% of the population. It is defined by the presence of one or more of the following symptoms- Epigastric pain or burning Early satiety Postprandial fullness in the absence of structural disease... -
Ingrown Toenail
What is Ingrown toenail? Ingrown toenail, also known as onychocryptosis or unguius incarnatus, occurs when the nail plate grows into the periungual skin and causes inflammation and infection. The hallux or the big toe nails are the most frequent location. One of the hypothesized theories for ingrown toenail is the excess of skin surrounding the nail. This leads to the bulging of the wide lateral tissue up around the nail leading to pressure and necrosis. Also, ingrown toenails occur when... -
Insect Bite
What is Insect Bite? Insects are arthropods of the class Insecta. Insects have an adult stage characterized by a hard exoskeleton, 3 pairs of jointed legs, and a body segmented into head, thorax, and abdomen. Arthropods make up the largest division of the animal kingdom, representing approximately 80% of all known animals. Arachnida has the greatest clinical impact on humans. The exact prevalence and incidence of insect bites is difficult to determine as most of the cases are not reported... -
Iron Deficiency
What is Iron deficiency? Iron deficiency or sideropenia is a state where total body iron stores are inadequate to support normal metabolic functions. Iron is essential for multiple biological functions of the body and is required for the synthesis of haemoglobin, myoglobin, cell regulation and DNA synthesis. Iron deficiency occurs in three stages- Pre-latent stage: iron stores are low or absent, but serum iron concentration is normal. Latent stage: transferrin saturation and serum iron become reduced in addition to low... -
Jammed Finger
What is a Jammed finger? Jammed finger is caused by a type of blunt impact in which the tip of the finger is pushed back toward the hand. The momentum from the impact's force can stretch or even tear the ligaments in the finger which can cause sprain. If the impact force is hard enough, it can also cause tendon damage or a bone fracture. Causes Jammed finger is caused by smashing the finger against something and the force pushes... -
Jaundice
What is Jaundice? Jaundice, also known as hyperbilirubinemia, is a yellow discoloration of the body tissue resulting from the accumulation of an excess of bilirubin. The normal serum levels of bilirubin are less than 1mg/dl, however, jaundice becomes clinically evident scleral icterus (peripheral yellowing of the eye sclera) when the levels reach more than 3 mg/dl. The metabolism of bilirubin can be divided into prehepatic, hepatic and post- hepatic phases. Dysfunction in prehepatic phase results in elevated serum levels of... -
Jet Lag Disorder
What is a Jet lag disorder? Jet lag occurs when air travel allows a person to move time zones in a short amount of time, thus causing the intrinsic circadian rhythm to be in desynchrony with external light cues. It usually includes when the person is travelling through at least two time zones. Eastward travel is more difficult to adjust to than westward travel. Currently, there are no studies to actually determine the gender preponderance to jet lag disorders. All... -
Jock Itch
What is Jock Itch? Jock itch also called as Tinea cruris, is an infection involving the genital, pubic, perineal, and perianal skin caused by pathogenic fungi known as dermatophytes. Intertriginous areas are suitable environments for fungus with sweating, maceration, and alkaline pH being responsible for the groin's predisposition to the infection. The dermatophytes affect the keratinised structures such as hair and the epidermis stratum corneum causing the array of symptoms. Though the basic pathophysiology remains unknown, these organisms use proteinases... -
Joint Infection
What is Joint infection (Septic arthritis)? Septic arthritis is joint inflammation secondary to an infectious aetiology, usually bacterial, but occasionally fungal, mycobacterial, viral, or other uncommon pathogens. The joint involvement is usually monoarticular affecting one large joint such as the hip or knee, however polyarticular presentation may also be seen. Septic arthritis may also result from direct injury, puncture wounds, and intra-articular injections. Also, the highly vascularized joint synovium lacks a limiting basement membrane so is prone to infection via... -
Joint Pain (Arthritis)
What is Joint pain? Joint pain or arthritis is defined as an acute or chronic joint inflammation that often co-exists with pain and structural damage. The disorder must be differentiated from arthralgia which is the localised pain in a joint regardless of its origin. There are many types of arthritis defined clinically, the most common being osteoarthritis or degenerative arthritis which is non-inflammatory arthritis. Osteoarthritis is the most prevalent type of arthritis amongst all. Between 19% and 30% of adults... -
Keratitis
What is Keratitis? Keratitis is a condition characterised by the inflammation of the cornea. The condition is marked by the presence of a clear dome on the front surface of the eye, which becomes inflamed. Nearly 1 million people are diagnosed with keratitis annually. Risk Factors Several risk factors are considered to be the cause of keratitis which may include- Contact lens wearers Known history of cold sores, chicken pox or shingles Frequent eye drops users Dry eyes Corneal injury... -
Kidney Stones / Renal Stones
What are Kidney Stones? Renal calculi are a common cause of blood in the urine (haematuria) and pain in the abdomen, flank, or groin. They occur in one in 11 people at some time in their lifetimes with males being affected more than females. For patients who have a history of a previous urinary stone, recurrence rates approach 50% at ten years. The four major types of renal calculi are as follows- Calcium stones due to hyperparathyroidism, hyperoxaluria, hypomagnesemia and... -
Knee Pain
What is Knee Pain? Knee pain is a common complaint among adults which is commonly associated with general wear and tear from daily activities like walking, bending, standing and lifting. Athletes who run or play sports that involve jumping or quick pivoting are also more likely to experience knee pain. The causes of knee pain may be multiple and it can affect the quality of life significantly. Causes of knee pain The common causes of knee pain are- Sprained or... -
Laceration
What is Laceration? Lacerations are a pattern of injury in which skin and the underlying tissues are cut or torn. Unlike an abrasion, the skin isn't missing. A cut is typically thought of as a wound caused by a sharp object, like a shard of glass. Usually, lacerations are caused by blunt trauma. Signs and symptoms A cut is typically one of the earliest and the easiest signs to diagnose the laceration, though it may be obscured by the blood... -
Leg Pain
What is Leg Pain? Pain in any part of the leg is considered to be a common symptom of trauma or a disease which requires a thorough investigation. Leg pain can be sharp, dull, numb, tingling, burning, radiating or aching depending upon the cause of origin. With respect to the duration, it can also be sudden (acute) or persistent (chronic). The most common cause of acute leg pain may be an injury sustained during sports. On the other hand, persistent... -
Lipoma
What is Lipoma? Lipomas are defined as a common subcutaneous growth composed of adipose (fat) cells, often encapsulated by a thin layer of fibrous tissue. Lipomas are the most frequent tumours which are encountered by the clinicians. However, lipomas must be differentiated from liposarcoma with the help of biopsy as liposarcomas pose a greater risk to the patient. The prevalence of lipomas has been cited as affecting 1% of the population, while its incidence is 2.1 per 1000 individuals per... -
Major Depressive Disorder
What is Major Depressive Disorder? Major depression, also known as unipolar or major depressive disorder (MDD), is characterized by a persistent feeling of sadness or a lack of interest in outside stimuli. Depression is a serious mood disorder and it presents with a spectrum of symptoms that can affect the quality of life of a person. Approximately, more than 264 million people of all ages suffer from depression worldwide. It is a leading cause of disability worldwide and also a... -
Malaria
What is Malaria? Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by Plasmodium parasites that are transmitted to people through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes called as malaria vectors. Total of 5 species cause malaria in human beings, of which 2- P. falciparum and P. vivax are the severe oneעs in its clinical presentation. In 2019, there were an estimated 229 million cases of malaria worldwide. Risk factors People residing in the countries with malaria transmission are at a greater... -
Mania
What is Mania? Mania is defined as a state of excitement manifested by mental and physical hyperactivity, disorganization of behaviour and elevation of mood. Periods of high or irritable mood are called manic episodes. The patient becomes very active and is full of energy. He/she might sleep far less than normal, and may dream up grand plans that could never be carried out. Patients may also develop psychotic symptoms such as false beliefs (delusions) or false perceptions (hallucinations). Hypomania is... -
Measles
What is measles? Measles (also called as rubeola) is a preventable highly contagious and an acute febrile viral illness accounting for the most important cause of global mortality and morbidity. It is an acute febrile exanthema characterised by three C's (cough, coryza and conjunctivitis). More than 1,40, 000 people died from measles in 2018- mostly children under the age of 5 years, despite the availability of a safe and effective vaccine. Causes The causative organism of measles is measles virus,... -
Mumps
What are Mumps? Mumps is an infection caused by a virus and spread human-to-human via direct contact or by airborne droplets. It is sometimes called infectious parotitis. The disease affects the salivary glands primarily. Mumps occurs worldwide, with 500,000 cases reported on average annually. Causes Mumps is caused by the Rubulavirus and a member of the paramyxoviridae family. The majority of the cases are seen in late winter and early spring. Risk factors include immunodeficiency, international travel and lack of... -
Muscle Strain
What is Muscle Strain? It is a contraction-induced injury in which muscle fibres tear due to extensive mechanical stress. This mostly occurs as a result of a powerful eccentric contraction or overstretching of the muscle. Causes A muscle strain can be acute or chronic. Acute muscle strain: An acute muscle strain occurs when muscle tears suddenly. It can be due to trauma or injuries when the muscle is not warmed up properly and has poor flexibility and conditioning. It may... -
NAIL TRAUMA
What is Nail Trauma? A fingernail or a toenail can be injured by a blow to the nail or by any crash injury to the distal phalanx (finger pinched in a drawer/doorway) leading to nail trauma. This kind of trauma results in the collection of blood under the nail and the condition is called subungual hematoma. Causes Some other causes Subungual hematoma are- Use of ill-fitting shoes (can affect toenails) Nail biting Cuticle biting Signs and symptoms Subungual hematoma appears... -
NARCOLEPSY
What is Narcolepsy? Narcolepsy is a disorder of rapid onset of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS), frequent uncontrollable sleep attacks as well as sleep fragmentation. It is also associated with cataplexy (a sudden, brief loss of voluntary muscle tone triggered by strong emotions), hypnagogic hallucinations (imagining realistic objects or events right before falling asleep), and sleep paralysis (feeling of being unable to move, either at the onset of sleep or upon awakening). The two... -
Near-Sightedness (Myopia)
What is Myopia? Near-sightedness or myopia is a medical condition in which people can easily see objects that are closer but encounter a blurring of vision for visualising the far objects. Myopia occurs when the eyeball is too long or when the cornea is too curved. Globally, the prevalence of myopia was estimated at 28.3% in 2010 and is expected to increase to 50% by 2050. Aetiology The exact cause of myopia is unknown. However, certain environmental factors and various... -
Neck Pain
What is Neck Pain? Neck pain is the musculoskeletal disorder that causes pain in the muscles of the neck and its surrounding tissue known as fascia. Hence, it is also termed as Cervical myofascial pain. It is also defined by the Global Burden of Health 2010 Study as "pain in the neck with or without pain referred to one or both upper limbs that lasts for at least one day". The pain could be localised or regional and may be... -
Nocturia
What is Nocturia? Nocturia is defined as the need for a patient to get up at night on a regular basis to urinate. A period of sleep must precede and follow the urinary episode to count as a nocturnal void. The condition must be distinguished from Nocturnal enuresis in which the patient is not aware of a full bladder and ends up passing urine involuntarily in the bed. Nocturia becomes more common with age and there is somewhat a higher... -
Nosebleed (Epistaxis)
What is Epistaxis? Epistaxis (nosebleed) is one of the most common ear, nose, and throat (ENT) emergencies that present to the emergency department or the primary care clinic. About 60 percent of people have experienced a nosebleed in their lifetime and it is most common in children ranging from 2 to 10 years old. There are two types of nosebleeds: Anterior nosebleed: The source of bleeding is Kiesselbach's plexus (Little's area) on the anterior nasal septum. This area lies at... -
Onychomycosis (Nail Fungus)
What is Onychomycosis? Onychomycosis is generally referred to as a non-dermatophytic infection of the nail which is the term used commonly to indicate any fungal infection of the nail. Tinea unguium however differs from onychomycosis as it is the dermatophytic invasion of the nail plate. Prevalence estimates range from 1% to 8%, and the incidence is increasing gradually. Men are more likely to get it than women. The older you are, the better your chances are, too. People who have... -
Orchitis
What is Orchitis? Orchitis is defined as the inflammation of the testicle unilaterally or bilaterally usually caused by viruses and bacteria. Testes are male reproductive organs in the scrotum and are responsible for the production of male sex hormones and sperm. The major route for the spread of infection to the testicle is blood- borne dissemination for isolated orchitis which is very rare. Ascending infections can also occur. Orchitis develops in 14% to 35% postpubertal patients with mumps. Also, mumps... -
Panic Attack
What is Panic Attack? Panic attacks are defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Health Disorders (DSM) as "an abrupt surge of intense fear or discomfort" reaching a peak within minutes. Panic disorder, however, is a separate entity and is characterised by recurrent, unexpected panic attacks. A hallmark feature of panic disorder is that it occurs without any warning. Panic attacks can occur alongside other disorders like anxiety, mood disorder and substance use disorder. Panic disorder, according to... -
Parkinson
What is Parkinson's Disease? Parkinson disease is a neurodegenerative disorder that mostly presents in later life with generalized slowing of movements (bradykinesia) and at least one other symptom of resting tremor or rigidity. It is idiopathic parkinsonism without evidence of more widespread neurologic involvement. More than 10 million people worldwide are living with PD and men have a greater preponderance to develop the disease than women. It affects the population over the age of 60 years. Causes The disorder is... -
Peptic Ulcer
What is Peptic Ulcer? Peptic ulcer disease (PUD) is characterized by discontinuation in the inner lining of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract because of gastric acid secretion or pepsin. This is usually confined to the stomach and proximal duodenum. Gastric ulcers are most commonly located on the lesser curvature of the stomach differentiating them from duodenal ulcers which are located at the duodenal bulb. The main mechanism behind the pathogenesis of peptic ulcer is the imbalance between gastric mucosal protective and... -
Pre-Diabetes
What is Pre-Diabetes? Prediabetes is the condition preceded by diabetes mellitus. It is a chronic metabolic condition where blood glucose levels are above the upper threshold considered normal but below the threshold for a diagnosis of diabetes. Hence, the sugar levels do not meet the required criteria for the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus. The prevalence of prediabetes is increasing worldwide and it is projected that more than 470 million people will have prediabetes in 2030. The condition starts with the... -
Presbyopia
What is Presbyopia? Presbyopia is a visual condition which becomes apparent especially in middle age and in which loss of elasticity of the lens of the eye causes defective accommodation and inability to focus sharply for near vision. It is the most common cause of visual impairment in older adults. The condition begins usually around the age of 40 years. Due to lack of proper awareness and poor affordability due to economic background, presbyopes do not get the condition corrected... -
Pressure Injury
What is Pressure Injury? Pressure injuries are defined as localized damage to the skin as well as underlying soft tissue, usually occurring over a bony prominence or related to medical devices. They are usually the result of prolonged or severe pressure due to shear and friction forces. These pressure injuries remain a major problem within hospitals and result in decreased quality of life rendering high costs for both the patient and health care system. The incidence of pressure injury depends... -
Pseudogout (CPPD)
What is Pseudogout? Calcium pyrophosphate deposition disease (CPPD) is a crystal deposition arthropathy involving the synovial and periarticular tissues. The condition can present as acute or chronic inflammatory arthritis. Acute calcium pyrophosphate (CPP) deposition arthritis, frequently referred to as "pseudogout" presents as an acute flare of synovitis that resembles acute urate arthropathy (gout). The common crystals involved are calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate. Most patients affected by acute calcium pyrophosphate deposition arthritis are over the age of 65 years. Aetiology The deposition... -
Psoriasis
What is Psoriasis? Psoriasis is a chronic proliferative and inflammatory condition of the skin which is characterized by erythematous plaques covered with silvery scales particularly over the extensor surfaces, scalp, and lumbosacral region. The pathophysiology is characterised by the infiltration of the skin by activated T cells which stimulate proliferation of keratinocytes and this results in the formation of thick plaques. Psoriasis occurs worldwide and its incidence varies. The age distribution is bimodal with first presentation ranging from 15-20 years... -
Rectal Bleeding
What is Rectal Bleeding? Rectal bleeding, or hematochezia, is a frequently encountered problem in the outpatient setting. It can suggest a pathology in the proximal lower gastrointestinal tract but it can also be due to other rectal conditions. The presentation may range from mild to severe depending upon the aetiology of the bleeding. It usually presents as a frank red blood exiting from the anus. It is just 40% of the patients that seek medical care for rectal bleeding. Also,... -
Restless leg syndrome
What is Restless Leg Syndrome? Restless legs syndrome, or Willis-Ekbom Disease, is a common, chronic, multifactorial, movement disorder of the limbs in which patients have an irresistible urge to move the legs. This condition starts with abnormal and non-painful sensations that start at rest and are improved by activity. The symptoms are worse at rest and during sleep. In the idiopathic form of Restless Legs Syndrome, it is hypothesized that a dysfunction in the levels of dopamine and iron stores... -
Rickets
What is Rickets? Rickets is characterized by a defect in mineralization and the widening of the epiphyseal plates. Nutritional rickets is the most common cause of bone disease all over the world. Osteomalacia is basically a defect in the mineralization of the bone matrix occurring in adults. Rickets is seen commonly in children. The prevalence of rickets is higher in developed countries. However, the prevalence has reduced in the developed countries significantly due to widespread introduction of dietary vitamin D... -
Rosacea
What is Rosacea? Rosacea is a common chronic inflammatory disease that presents with recurrent flushing, erythema, telangiectasia, papules, or pustules on nose, chin, cheeks, and forehead. The four clinical subtypes of rosacea based on the sign and symptoms can be defined as- Erythematotelangiectatic Papulopustular Phymatous Ocular Factors like neurovascular dysregulation, overactive immune system and infestation with Demodex mites play an important role in the development of rosacea. Microbes like Demodex folliculorum and Helicobacter pylori can trigger the activation of the... -
Sleep Disorders
What are Sleep Disorders? Sleep disorders comprise a group of conditions that disturb the normal sleep pattern of a person. It is one of the most commonly encountered clinical problems which can affect the quality of life immensely. Insomnia is significantly associated with this. Sleep disorders can be classified into primary and secondary sleep disorders. Primary sleep disorders arise from endogenous causes. They can be further divided into Parasomnias (unusual behaviours during sleep like sleep walking, nightmares etc.) and Dyssomnias... -
Teething / Dentition
What is Teething? Teething is the process by which an infant's first teeth (the deciduous teeth, often called "baby teeth" or "milk teeth") sequentially appear by emerging through the gums, typically arriving in pairs. Teething usually begins when a baby is between 6 and 8 months old. Some children do not show any teeth until much later than 8 months, but this is usually normal. The two bottom front teeth (lower incisors) usually come in first. Next to grow in... -
Tendinitis
What is Tendinitis? Tendinitis, also known as tendonitis, is the inflammation of a tendon. It happens when a person overuses or injures a tendon, for example, during sport. It is normally linked to an acute injury with inflammation. It often affects the elbow, wrist, finger, thigh, and other parts of the body. Risk factors Tendons become less flexible with age and more susceptible to injury. A person whose job involves repetitive movements, awkward positions, frequently reaching overhead, vibration, and forceful... -
Thyroid Disease
What is Thyroid Disease? Thyroid disease occurs when the thyroid gland doesn't supply the proper amount of hormones needed by the body. If the thyroid is overactive, it releases too much thyroid hormone into the bloodstream, resulting in hyperthyroidism. ("Hyper" is from the Greek, meaning "over" or "above.") Hyperthyroidism causes the body to use up energy more quickly than it should, and chemical activity (like metabolism) in the cells speeds up. An underactive thyroid produces too little thyroid hormone, resulting... -
Tonsillitis
What is Tonsillitis? Tonsillitis is the inflammation of tonsils and is caused due to viral or bacterial infection and presents as a sore throat when uncomplicated. The tonsils are composed of Waldeyer's ring along with the adenoids (nasopharyngeal tonsil), tubal tonsil, and lingual tonsils. They serve as an important defence against inhaled or ingested pathogens by providing the initial immunological barrier to external impressions. The incidence of tonsillitis varies and the disease makes up to almost 1.3% of the outpatient... -
Torn Knee Meniscus
What is Torn Knee Meniscus? The lateral and medial menisci are crescent-shaped fibrocartilaginous structures that collectively cover approximately 70% of the articular surface of the tibial plateau. The primary function of the menisci is load transmission and shock absorption through the tibiofemoral joint. 70 percent of each meniscus is made up of a network of type1 collagen which is arranged primarily in circumferential direction. Meniscal tears are categorized by both their shape and location when visualised on MRI. Knee meniscal... -
Travellers Diarrhoea
What is Traveller's Diarrhoea? Traveller's diarrhoea is a common ailment in persons traveling to resource-limited destinations overseas. It is considered as three or more loose stools in 24 hours or a two-fold increase from baseline bowel habits. This is the most common travel-associated condition and affects nearly 60 percent of travellers. There is no immunity against future attacks and it appears to occur commonly in warmer climates. Factors like poor sanitation and lack of refrigeration play an important role in... -
Urinary Retention
What is Urinary Retention? Urinary retention is defined as the inability to void urine voluntarily. The condition may be acute or chronic. Acute retention is sudden inability to urinate and chronic retention is the gradual inability to completely empty the bladder. The condition is more common in men with prostatic enlargement. Neurogenic causes of urinary retention occur in younger males and females. Aetiology Urinary retention may be caused due to a blockage that partially or fully prevents the flow of... -
Urinary Tract Infection
What is Urinary Tract Infection? Urinary tract infection (UTI) is a bacterial infection of the bladder and associated structures. It is also called uncomplicated UTI or cystitis. UTI when seen in males is usually complicated. Women have a shorter urethra than men and hence they are more prone to develop UTI. An uncomplicated UTI involves only the bladder. Cystitis is produced when the bacteria invade the bladder mucosal wall. The infection occurs usually between the ages of 16 and 35... -
Urticaria
What is Urticaria? The term urticaria has been derived from a common European stinging nettle, Urtica dioica. It is a condition characterised by itchy weal (hives), with or without surrounding erythematous flares. A wheal (weal) is a typical superficial skin-coloured or pale skin swelling, usually surrounded by erythema that lasts from few minutes to 24 hours. The current classification of urticaria may be defined as: - Acute spontaneous urticaria: Spontaneous occurrence of wheals and/or angioedema for a total duration of... -
Vaginal Candidiasis
What is Vaginal Candidiasis? Vulvovaginitis, or inflammation of the vulva and vagina, most commonly occurs in reproductive-aged women and is usually secondary to infection. Candidal vulvovaginitis occurs in almost one third of cases. The condition occurs when Candida species superficially penetrate the mucosal lining of the vagina and cause an inflammatory response. Almost 70 percent of women complain of vaginal candidiasis at some point in their lifetimes. Aetiology Candidal vulvovaginitis is caused by inflammatory changes in the vaginal and vulvar... -
Voiding Disorders
What are Voiding Disorders? The normal micturition process requires the proper function of both bladder and urethra. Also, normal functioning of detrusor muscle and competency of internal and external urethral sphincters is essential to ensure a healthy urinary incontinence. Bladder dysfunction or voiding disorders vary with the neuroanatomy and neurophysiology disorders of the upper and lower urinary tract system. Any abnormal functioning of the related structures due to trauma or a disease can cause bladder dysfunction. Almost, 70 to 84%... -
Vulvodynia
What is Vulvodynia? Vulvodynia is defined as a vulvar pain of at least three months' duration, without a clear, identifiable cause, which may have potential associated factors. It is a diagnosis of exclusion and is an idiopathic pain disorder. The pain may be generalised or localised depending on the location. It may also be spontaneous or provoked. It could occur throughout a patient's life or just with a new partner (primary or secondary) and/or it can be intermittent, persistent, constant,... -
Weakness/Asthenia
What is Weakness? Asthenia, also known as weakness, is the feeling of body fatigue or tiredness. It is best defined as a lack of energy to move muscles in the body. Weakness can be either temporary or permanent depending on the underlying cause. Aetiology Some of the most common causes of asthenia are- Flu Thyroid disorder Anaemia Depression or anxiety Sleep disorders Congestive heart failure Vitamin B12 deficiency Chemotherapy Less common causes of weakness include cancer, nerve or muscle injuries... -
Whooping Cough
What is Whooping Cough? Whooping cough also known by the name of pertussis, "the cough of 100 days" is a serious illness caused by Bordetella pertussis. The disease was first described in 1906. The organism is a gram-negative coccobacillus that lodges in the ciliated respiratory epithelial cells. This leads to some inflammatory changes in the mucosal lining of the respiratory tract and the toxins released act locally and systemically. The organism is never found in the blood cultures. Pertussis largely...